Korea (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum)

Korea (Korean: 한국 Hanguk), officially the Republic of Korea (Korean: 대한민국 Daehan Minguk), is a sovereign state in the Korean Peninsula. The name "Korea" is derived from "Goryeo", a name of the dynasty which ruled the country in the Middle Ages. Its neighbors are China to the west, Manchuria to the north, the Soviet Union to the northeast, Japan to the east, and the East China Sea to the south.

Korea lies in the north temperate zone with a predominantly mountainous terrain. It covers a total area of 220,847 sq km and has a population of almost 90 million. The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 10,521,782.

Climate
The climate of the Korea differs dramatically from north to south. The southern regions experience a relatively warm and wet climate similar to that of Japan, affected by warm ocean waters including the East Korea Warm Current. The northern regions experience a colder and to some extent more inland climate, in common with Manchuria. For example, the annual precipitation of the Yalu River valley (600 mm (24 in)) is less than half of that on the south coast (1500 mm (59 in)). Likewise, there is a 20° C (68° F) difference in January temperature between the peninsula's southern and northern tips.

The entire peninsula, however, is affected by similar general patterns, including the East Asian monsoon in midsummer and the frequent incidence of typhoons in autumn. The majority of rainfall takes place during the summer months, with nearly half during the monsoon alone. Winters are cold, with January temperatures typically below freezing outside of Jeju Island. Winter precipitation is minimal, with little snow accumulation outside of mountainous areas.

Politics and government
According to the 1934 Constitution of the Republic of Korea, Korea is a sovereign and independent country that governed under the principle of National Democracy.

The National Congress of Korea (국민대표대회 Gukmin Daepyo Daehoe) is the highest state organ of Korea. Its members are elected every four years by indirect elections. The election, however, is only participated in by parties that are recognized as legal, with the Korean Nationalist Party (대한국민당 Daehan Gukmindang) as its leading party. The Congress elects the Legislative Council of Korea (립법원 Ribbeop-won) from among its members every two years to exercise the legislative power and to act on the behalf of the National Congress if the latter is not in session.

The President of the Republic of Korea (총재 Chongjae) is elected by the National Congress from among its members every four years. The President is the head of state of the Republic, and the nominal commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President of the Republic has the power to advise the Council of the Ministers in the matters concerning executive, defense and financial affairs of Korea.

The Council of Ministers of Korea (각료회의 Gakryo Hoeui) serves as the highest administrative body of Korea and headed by the Chairman of the Council who bearing the title of Prime Minister (총리 Chongri) and assisted by three Vice-Chairmen of the Council, who bearing the title of Vice-Prime Ministers (부총리 Bu-Chongri). The composition of the Council of Ministers is nominated by a formateur committee called the Committee of Three (삼인관 Sam'in-gwan) which is consisted by three members of the National Congress that appointed by the President prior being approved by the two-third majority of the Congress.

The State Council of Korea (국무원 Gukmu-won) is the advisory body for the National Congress and National Government. Its members are elected by the prefectural councils and by the corporate and special interest groups every four years. The State Council acts as a supervisor of powers and duties of National Congress and represents the political parties and mass organizations that allied with or loyal to the Korean Nationalist Party.

The National Court of Korea (국민재판소 Gukmin Jaepanso) serves as the country's supreme judicature in charge of judicial matters and supervision and administration of lower courts. All of judges of the Court are appointed by the National Congress of Korea from the candidates that have been nominated by the President of the Republic. All citizens of Korea are subjected to the Korean law and under the authority of National Court. The National Procuratorate of Korea (국민검찰소 Gukmin Geomchalso) charged with both the investigation and prosecution of crime at the national level and supervised the procuratorates in every levels below.

Joseon dynasty (1392–1905)
After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. King Yeongjo and King Jeongjo led a new renaissance of Joseon. However, as result of the two invasions, Joseon became increasingly isolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries by closing the country's borders to all nations but Qing China. Joseon's isolationist policy earned it the name the "Hermit Kingdom". Internally, after the death of King Jeongjo in 1800, Joseon was hampered by "in-law" factions of the court that fighting each other for power. Later Joseon kings then had no monarchic authority and could not rule over its own government.

Following the opening of Japan in 1854, The General Sherman, an American-owned armed merchant marine side-wheel schooner, attempted to open Korea to trade in 1866. After being ordered to leave by the Korean officials, the ship crewmen killed four Korean inhabitants, kidnapped a military officer and engaged in sporadic fighting that continued for four days. The ship was then finally destroyed by Korean fireships. In response, the United States confronted Korea militarily in 1871, killing 243 Koreans in Ganghwa island before withdrawing.

Since 1863, King Gojong took the throne as the monarch of Joseon. However, it was his father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, that ruled for him as true ruler of Joseon until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Daewongun was the main proponent of isolationism. In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. However, Queen Min quickly assumed the role occupied by the Daewongun previously in which she completely controlled the royal court, placing her family in high court positions.

Conflict between the conservative court under Queen Min's dominating rule and a reforming faction led to the Gapsin Coup in 1884. The reformers sought to reform Koreans' institutionalized social inequality, by proclaiming social equality and the elimination of the privileges of the yangban class. The reformers were backed by Japan, and were thwarted by the arrival of Qing troops, invited by conservative Queen Min.

Many Koreans despised foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion. The Joseon government asked the Qing Dynasty for assistance in ending the revolt. Japan considered the Qing presence in Korea as a direct threat to its sovereignty and sent in their own troops to seize the Royal Palace in Seoul and install a pro-Japanese government on June 8, 1894. This event soon escalated into the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) between Japan and Qing China, fought largely in Korea.

After Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, Queen Min advocated stronger ties between Korea and Russia in an attempt to block Japanese influence in Korea, which was represented by Daewongun. After a failed assassination attempt that orchestrated by Daewongun, Queen Min turned her attention away from the Qing and advocated close diplomatic ties with Russia to counter Japanese influence. New pro-Russian cabinet was installed in 1895 and a series of reforms was initiated. During this period, Korea experienced the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, transportation, real property laws, education system, and various industries that aided by the experts from Russia.

The wave of modernization in Korea as well as Russia's presence in Manchuria causing the Japanese much anxiety. Through threat of Russian expansion, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the 39th parallel to be a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests and chose to go to war. The negotiations broke down in 1904, resulted to the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).

The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. According to the treaty, Russia and Japan agreed to divide Korea to their respective spheres of influences along the 38th parallel north and Karafuto Island along the 50th parallel north. Korea was effectively subjugated into the protectorate of both Russia and Japan, each with the signings of the protectorate treaties with Russia on November 1, 1905 and with Japan on November 7, 1905. Following the division, King Gojong and the royal household relocated their seat from Seoul to Hamhung in the north of 38th parallel to avoid the political influence of Japan.

Partition of Korea (1905–1931)
World War I in 1914 required Russia to redirect its energies to Europe and neglect its Asian interests, including northern Korea. Abandoned by the Russians, the Hamhung-based Gungjeong clique (宮廷 [궁정] "Palace") under Queen Min and the Pyongyang-based Bugan clique (北安 [북안] "Northern Peace") under warlord Hong Beom-do fought for the control of the north of 38th parallel. To rid the Buk'an clique out of politics and protect Korea from the Bolshevik penetration, Queen Min asked the Chinese government to send its forces into northern Korea in 1917. Manchurian warlord, Chang Tso-lin, then was ordered to dispatch his Fengtian Army into Korea.

Chinese military move into northern Korea angered the government of Japan which viewed it as a reminiscence of Qing presence in Korea prior to the First Sino-Japanese War. In November 1918, Queen Min suddenly died of mysterious circumstances and was rumored to be poisoned by Japanese agents for her dominating influence over the royal court that were responsible for the presence of Fengtian Army in the north of 38th parallel.

The revolutionary waves in Japan influenced the Koreans as early as mid 1918. The political development in Japan influenced the Korean students to found the Chosun Students' Association in Kyoto, led by Yi Kwang-su. The Association sought to launch a similar anti-royalist revolution in their native country. Yi wrote a series of pamphlets for the Association called “Toward the National Revolution” (국민혁명에게 Gukmin Hyeongmyeong-ege) which openly denounced the Korean monarchy as a corrupt and backward regime. Yi also called for the Pan-Asian solidarity between "revolutionary Japan" and "revolutionary Korea", instead of maintaining anti-Japanese attitude.

In order to support the Association's cause, Yi invited fellow activist Song Jin-woo to Kyoto on August 14, 1918. Song later arrived in Japan, accompanied by Kim Seong-su and Ahn Jae-hong on August 27, 1918. With Yi's help, Song met Nagayama Yoshida and Kita Ikki during his stay in Kyoto. Song was impressed by Nagayama's political vision and decided to join the Pan-Asianist cause. During this period, Song also met Zhou Fohai, the leader of Chinese students in Kyoto and future leader of post-war China. On October 1, 1918, the Students's Association was transformed into the Sinmyeonghoe (新命會; 신명회 "New Life Society") with Song Jin-woo as its president.

Korean Revolution (1919–1920)
Following the founding of Republic of Japan on February 16, 1919, the Japanese revolutionary government issued a memorandum on February 23, 1919 which seek to reverse the Imperial Japanese policy in Korea and call for an "equal and mutual relationship" between two peoples, instead of imposing a military protectorate. The memorandum was received with arousing support from the Koreans around the world, such as the Daehan Gukmin Hyeophoe in the United States and the Shinhan Cheonyeondang in China.

The February 23 memorandum inspired the Koreans to further their independence clause at home. On March 1, 1919, the protesters in Seoul issued the Korean Declaration of Independence. Just few days later, the peaceful rallies swept the country to appeal to the consciences of the ruling royal family in Hamhung and protest against the presence of foreign troops in the Peninsula. However, the demonstrations were put down violently by the royal forces in the north and the Japanese Army in the south. The Sinmyeonghoe used this opportunity to launch a revolution by creating the Self-Defense Army (自衛軍; 자위군 Jawi-gun) led by Ji Cheong-cheon.

Provided with the firearms from the Japanese revolutionaries, the Self-Defense Army launched military uprisings against the Joseon dynasty on April 12, 1919. As the monarchy had almost no presence in the south and the Imperial Japanese Army had fought a war of their own with the Japanese revolutionaries, the Self-Defense Army successfully took over the controls of several cities in the south without too much bloodshed. However, the main obstacle in the takeover instead came from the Iljinhoe figures whose stood loyally to the Japanese Empire, instead of the Japanese Republic.