Korea (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum)

Korea (Korean: 고려 Goryŏ), officially the Republic of Korea (Korean: 고려민국 Goryŏ Minguk), is a sovereign state in the Korean Peninsula. The name "Korea" is derived from the country's native name, "Goryŏ", which also a name of the dynasty which ruled in the Middle Ages. Its neighbors are China to the west, Manchuria to the north, the Soviet Union to the northeast, Japan to the east, and the East China Sea to the south.

Korea lies in the north temperate zone with a predominantly mountainous terrain. It covers a total area of 220,847 sq km and has a population of almost 90 million. The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 10,521,782.

Climate
The climate of the Korea differs dramatically from north to south. The southern regions experience a relatively warm and wet climate similar to that of Japan, affected by warm ocean waters including the East Korea Warm Current. The northern regions experience a colder and to some extent more inland climate, in common with Manchuria. For example, the annual precipitation of the Yalu River valley (600 mm (24 in)) is less than half of that on the south coast (1500 mm (59 in)). Likewise, there is a 20° C (68° F) difference in January temperature between the peninsula's southern and northern tips.

The entire peninsula, however, is affected by similar general patterns, including the East Asian monsoon in midsummer and the frequent incidence of typhoons in autumn. The majority of rainfall takes place during the summer months, with nearly half during the monsoon alone. Winters are cold, with January temperatures typically below freezing outside of Jeju Island. Winter precipitation is minimal, with little snow accumulation outside of mountainous areas.

Politics and government
According to the 1950 Constitution of the Republic of Korea, Korea is the sovereign and independent country that governed under the principle of National Democracy.

The President of the Republic of Korea (총재 Chongjae) is elected by the National Assembly from among its members every four years. The President is the head of state of Republic, and the nominal commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President also functioned to advise the Council of the Ministers of matters concerning executive, defense and financial affairs of Korea.

The National Assembly of Korea (국민대표대회 Gukmin Daepyo Daehoe) serves as the national legislature of Korea and responsible for formulate the country's main policies. All members of National Assembly elected every four years by the direct election. The election, however, only participated by the parties that recognized as legal under the Korean law, with the Greater Korean Party (대고려당 Dae Goryŏ-dang) as leading party in Korea since 1950.

The Council of Ministers of Korea (각료회의 Gakryo Hoeŭi) serves as the highest administrative body of Korea and headed by the Chairman of the Council who bearing the title of Prime Minister (총리 Chongri) and assisted by three Vice-Chairmen of the Council, who bearing the title of Vice-Prime Ministers (부총리 Bu-Chongri). The composition of the Council of Ministers is nominated by a formateur committee consisted by three members of the National Congress that appointed directly by the President prior being approved by the majority of the Congress.

The National Court of Korea (국민재판소 Gukmin Jaepanso) serves as the country's supreme judicature in charge of judicial matters and supervision and administration of lower courts. All of judges of the Court appointed by the National Assembly. Every Korean citizens were the subject of Korean law and under the authority of Korean National Court.

Josŏn dynasty (1392–1905)
After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Josŏn experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. King Yŏngjo and King Jŏngjo led a new renaissance of Josŏn. However, as result of the two invasions, Josŏn became increasingly isolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries by closing the country's borders to all nations but Qing China. Josŏn's isolationist policy earned it the name the "Hermit Kingdom".

Following the opening of Japan in 1854, The General Sherman, an American-owned armed merchant marine side-wheel schooner, attempted to open Korea to trade in 1866. After being ordered to leave by the Korean officials, the ship crewmen killed four Korean inhabitants, kidnapped a military officer and engaged in sporadic fighting that continued for four days. The ship was then finally destroyed by Korean fireships. In response, the United States confronted Korea militarily in 1871, killing 243 Koreans in Ganghwa island before withdrawing.

Since 1863, King Gojong took the throne as the monarch of Josŏn. However, it was his father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, that ruled for him as true ruler of Josŏn until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism. In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. However, the future Queen Min then replaced the retired Hŭngsŏn Daewongun as true ruler of Josŏn where she gained complete control over the royal court, placing her family in high court positions.

Conflict between the conservative court under Queen Min's dominating rule and a reforming faction led to the Gapsin Coup in 1884. The reformers sought to reform Koreans institutionalized social inequality, by proclaiming social equality and the elimination of the privileges of the yangban class. The reformers were backed by Japan, and were thwarted by the arrival of Qing troops, invited by the conservative Queen Min.

Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion. The Josŏn government asked the Qing Dynasty government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Japanese considered the Qing presence in Korea as a direct threat to its sovereignty and sent in their own troops to seize the Royal Palace in Seoul and install a pro-Japanese government on June 8, 1894. This soon escalated into the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) between Japan and Qing China, fought largely in Korea.

After Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, Queen Min advocated stronger ties between Korea and Russia in an attempt to block Japanese influence in Korea, which was represented by Daewongun. After a failed assassination attempt that orchestrated by Daewongun, Queen Min turned her attention away from the Qing and advocated close diplomatic ties with Russia to counter Japanese influence. The new pro-Russian cabinet was installed in 1895 and a series of reforms was initiated. During this period, Korea experienced the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, transportation, real property laws, education system, and various industries that aided by the experts from Russia.

The wave of modernization in Korea as well as Russia's presence in Manchuria causing the Japanese much anxiety. Through threat of Russian expansion, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the 39th parallel to be a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests and chose to go to war. The negotiations broke down in 1904, resulted to the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).

The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. According to the treaty, Russia and Japan agreed to divide Korea to their respective spheres of influences along the 38th parallel north and Karafuto Island along the 50th parallel north. Following the division, King Gojong and the Josŏn royal household relocated their seat from Seoul to Kaesong in the Russian zone north of 38th parallel to avoid the political influence of Japan. The Japanese Residency-General of Korea was established in the south of 38th parallel on 1906.

Partition of Korea (1905–1931)
main page: Korea under Japanese rule (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum)

The partition of Korea according the Treaty of Portsmouth met a resistance from the common populace. Following the signing of the treaty, many intellectuals and scholars set up various organizations and associations, embarking on movements opposed Korea to be torn apart by the foreign powers and campaigned for the independence of Korea. The independence movements also denounced the Korean royal government that they believed held any responsibility for allowing the foreign powers to spread their influences over the Korean sovereignty.

Korea was effectively subjugated into a protected state of both Russia and Japan each with the signings of the protectorate treaties with Russia on November 1, 1905 and with Japan on November 17, 1905. Remained with its pro-Russian policy, the Josŏn royal household then decided to relocate its residences from Seoul to Kaesong in the Russian zone of influence on December 21, 1905. Without any presence from the Joseon royal family in the region south of 38th parallel, the Japanese consolidated their presence further by appointing Park Yeong-hyo as the regent of Josŏn Dynasty in the south, practically ended the rule of Josŏn Dynasty in southern Korea.

The outbreak of the World War I in 1914 required Russia to redirect its energies to Europe. By the middle of 1915, the Russian military position had deteriorated so badly that the Russian government had no choice but to neglect its Asian interests, including northern Korea. The newly-established Republic of China under Yuan Shikai soon took advantage of the Russian distractions and attempted to establish its control over Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern Korea.

The Bolshevik revolution in 1917 and the resultant outbreak of civil war in Russia provided new opportunities for China to revive its presence in Korea. The threat of Bolshevik penetration into northern Korea unsettled both the Joseon royal family and the warlord of Manchuria, Chang Tso-lin. With the permission from the Central Government of the Republic of China, Chang Tso-lin dispatched his Fengtian troops from Manchuria into northern Korea on spring 1918. By August 1918, northern Korea is effectively under de jure control of China and de facto control of Fengtian clique.

Chinese moves into northern Korea angered Japan that saw the Chinese presence in the northern Korea reminded with Qing presence prior to the First Sino-Japanese War. In November 1918, Queen Min suddenly died with a mysterious circumstance, which she was rumoured to be poisoned by the Japanese agents in order to stop her influences over the royal court which responsible for the Chinese presence in northern Korea. With the death of Queen Min, northern Korea was totally fall below the influences of Fengtian clique. Regionalism and factionalism were increasingly common at the Northern politics while King Gojong in Kaesong merely became a powerless figurehead of a dying dynasty.

By 1919, Japan was succumbed into a civil war itself following the Rice Riots of 1918 that sparked a revolutionary wave throughout the country. The establishment of the Republic of Japan was proclaimed on February 16, 1919 by the National Congress of Japan, presided by Nagayama Yoshida. About a month after the establishment of the Republic of Japan, the peaceful, pro-independence rallies swept the Korean peninsula starting from March 1, 1919. The rallies were held in Seoul, Pyongyang, Kaesong, and the vast majority of the country’s cities and towns over the next two days to appeal to the consciences of the ruling royal family in north and Japanese protectorate authority in south.

In aftermath of the March 1st Movement, there were three Korean provisional governments formed in 1919. The first was formed in Vladivostok on March 21, the second in Pyongyang on April 13 and the third in Hansŏng (Seoul) on April 21. These governments, however, acted independently instead. For example, prominent figure of Korean diaspora in the United States, Lee Seungman, was appointed into three different posts at the same time: Foreign Minister for the Vladivostok Government, Prime Minister for the Pyongyang Government and President for the Hansŏng Government.

The Army of Korea (高麗軍; Japanese: Kōrai-gun; Korean: Goryŏ-gun) was organized in September 1919 by the Republican government to combat the loyalist Japanese Korean Army as well as to regain the control over southern Korea under the Republic of Japan. The Army itself was consisted of about 3000 Japanese soldiers defected from the Japanese Korean Army as well as 1000 Korean volunteers from the southern Korean provinces. The Army of Korea was involved in heavy combats between 1919 and 1924, and again the remnants of Japanese Korean Army as well as China's Army for Eastern Protection that sought to occupy the provinces south of 38th parallel.