Myanmar (Burma Ascension)

Myanmar, officially the Kingdom of the United Provinces of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is the largest country by geographical size in South and Southeast Asia and the second largest in Asia. It is bordered in the north by the Tibetan Lamanate and the Kingdom of China (North China), in the east by the Republic of China (South China) and the Republic of Vietnam, and by the Bharati Republic and Dravadia in the West. Myanmar has an uninterrupted coastline of nearly 8600 kilometers along the Bay of Bengal, the Andaman Sea, the Straits of Malacca, the Gulf of Siam and the South China Sea. Myanmar has a coast to both the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The culture is heavily dominated by Theravada Buddhism and assimilated cultures, particularly Chinese, Indian and also Thai.

Prehistory
Archaeological digs have unearthed that Myanmar possessed a number of civilisation hubs, particularly along the Irrawaddy river, the Chao Phraya river, the Ganges river and in the Malay Peninsula. The current kingdom can trace its origins to population settlements along the Irrawaddy River. Studies of the ruins of Sri Ksetra, Beikthano and Halin have shown that these sites were the origins of the Pyu culture, which was proto-Burmese. Other bronze-age archaeological sites located within the kingdom but not of Burmese or related cultures include Baranathi (Varanasi) on the Ganges river, Oc Eo on the Mekong Delta and Kedah in the Malay Peninsula.

Cave paintings and a Holocene assemblage in a hunter-gatherer cave site in Padah Lin in Shan State show evidence of an early neolithic culture (circa 10,000 BC). Rice cultivation and chicken domestication were being practiced around 2,500 BC, and the production of iron tools dates to around 1500 BC. Of the modern Burmese, the Mon people are thought to have migrated into the lower Irrawaddy valley around 1500 BC and, by the mid-10th century BC, they were dominant in southern Burma. The Tibeto-Burman speaking Pyu arrived later in the 1st century BC, and established several city states – of which Sri Ksetra (modern Pyay) was the most powerful – in central Irrawaddy valley. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century AD when the powerful kingdom of Nanzhao (in present-day Yunnan) invaded the Irrawaddy valley several times.

Buddhism has been documented to arrive in Myanmar proper by the 2nd century BCE, most likely due to missionaries sent by King Asoka. Buddhist sites from the 3rd century BCE to 11th century CE can be traced along the entire coast region of Myanmar. However, for at least 1 millennium from 3rd century BCE to 7th century CE, the inhabitants followed localized blends of Hinduism and Buddhism. By the 9th century, Theravada Buddhism became prevalent in the coastal regions while Tantric Buddhism and Hinduism became popular in the in-land regions.

Stone inscriptions state that a loose confederation of Pyu states existed along the Irrawaddy valley, maintaining links with places as far away as the Roman Empire and Arabia. In 774 CE, Bagan was founded on the eastern bank of the Irrawaddy river as a small trading post. In 874 CE, Bagan became the capital of a small Pyu kingdom and soon became a major city. By 10th century CE, the Pyu city states declined in prosperity and influence.

Imperial Era (1000-1932CE)
The power gap left by the decline of the Pyu kingdoms was filled by the Bamar, a Tibeto-Burman speaking group that migrated to the Irrawaddy Valley from the Kingdom of Nanzhao in present-day Yunnan. These migrants established the Pagan Kingdom centered in Bagan in 849, which, by the reign of Anawrahta (1044–1077) ruled much of the territory along the Irrawaddy river. It was in this period that many elements of modern Burmese culture were cemented. After Anawrahta's capture of the Mon capital of Thaton in 1057, the Bamar adopted Theravada Buddhism from the Mons. The Burmese script was created, based on the Mon script, during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1113). Prosperous from trade, Bagan kings built many magnificent temples and pagodas throughout the country, many of which can still be seen today. King Alaungsithu (1113-1167) extended Burmese control along the western coast of the Malay peninsula. The Pagan kingdom ended following the Mongol invasion of Burma by the forces of Kublai Khan in 1277 and the sacking of Bagan in 1286.

Third Burmese Nation (1750-1840)
The authority of Ava continued to decline in the following years. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Burma broke away, and founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom with the capital at Pegu (Bago). Ava's enfeebled attempts to recover the south failed to make a dent. The low grade warfare between Ava and Pegu went on until late 1751, when Pegu launched its final assault, invading Upper Burma in full force. By early 1752, Peguan forces, aided by French-supplied firearms and Dutch and Portuguese mercenaries, had reached the gates of Ava. The heir apparent of Hanthawaddy summoned all administrative officers in Upper Burma to submit. Some chose to cooperate but others like Aung Zeya chose to resist.

Aung Zeya persuaded 46 villages in the Mu valley to join him in resistance. He found a ready audience in "an exceptionally proud group of men and women" of Upper Burma who longed to redress the numerous humiliations that their once proud kingdom had suffered. On 21 March 1752, as the Hanthawaddy forces were about to breach the outer walls of Ava, Aung Zeya proclaimed himself king with the royal style of Alaungpaya (the Embryo Buddha), and founded the Konbaung Dynasty.

Not everyone was convinced, however. After Ava fell to Peguan forces on 23 March 1752, Alaungpaya's own father urged him to submit. The father pointed out that although Alaungpaya had scores of enthusiastic men, they only had a few muskets, and that their little stockade did not stand a chance against a well-equipped Peguan army that had just sacked a heavily fortified Ava. Alaungpaya was undeterred, saying: "When fighting for your country, it matters little whether there are few or many. What does matter is that your comrades have true hearts and strong arms". He prepared the defenses by stockading his village, now renamed Shwebo, and building a moat around it. He had the jungle outside the stockade cleared, the ponds destroyed and the wells filled.

Konbaung was only one among many other resistance forces that had independently sprung up across a panicked Upper Burma. Fortunately for the resistance forces, the Hanthawaddy command mistakenly equated their capture of Ava with the victory over Upper Burma, and withdrew two-thirds of the invasion force back to Pegu, leaving just a third (less than 10,000 men) for what they considered a mop-up operation. At first, the strategy seemed to work. The Hanthawaddy forces established outposts as far north as present day northern Sagaing Region, and found allies in the Gwe Shans of Madaya in present-day northern Mandalay Region.

Nonetheless, Alaungpaya's forces wiped out the first two Hanthawaddy detachments sent to secure allegiance. Next, they survived the month-long siege by the Hanthawaddy army of several thousand led by Gen. Talaban himself, and drove out the invaders in a rout.[9] The news spread. Soon, Alaungpaya was mustering a proper army from across the Mu valley and beyond, using his family connections and appointing his fellow gentry leaders as his key lieutenants. Success drew fresh recruits everyday from many regions across Upper Burma. Most other resistance forces as well as officers from the disbanded Palace Guards had joined him with such arms as they retained. By October 1752, he had emerged the primary challenger to Hanthawaddy, and driven out all Hanthawaddy outposts north of Ava, and their allies Gwe Shans from Madaya. A dozen legends gathered around his name. Men felt that when he led them they could not fail.

Despite repeated setbacks, Pegu incredibly still did not send in reinforcements even as Alaungpaya consolidated his gains throughout Upper Burma. On 3 January 1754, Konbaung forces retook Ava. Alaungpaya now received homage from the nearer Shan sawbwanates, as far north as Momeik. In March 1754, Hanthawaddy finally sent the entire army, laying siege to Ava and advancing up to Kyaukmyaung a few miles from Shwebo. But Alaungpaya personally led the Konbaung counterattack, and drove out the southern armies by May.

The conflict increasingly turned into an ethnic conflict between the Burman north and the Mon south. The Hanthawaddy leadership escalated "self-defeating" policies of persecuting southern Burmans. They also executed the captive king of Toungoo in October 1754. Alaungpaya was only happy to exploit the situation, encouraging remaining Burman troops to come over to him. Many did.

Swelled by levies from throughout Upper Burma, including Shan, Kachin and Chin contingents, he launched a massive invasion of Lower Burma in a blitz in January 1755. By May, his armies had conquered the entire Irrawaddy delta, and captured Dagon (which he renamed Yangon). But the advance came to a sudden halt at the French-defended main port city of Syriam (Thanlyin), which repelled several Konbaung charges. Alaungpaya sought an alliance with the English, and sought arms. But no alliance or arms materialized. Konbaung forces finally took the city after a 14-month siege in July 1756, ending the French intervention in the Burmese civil war. The Konbaung forces then overcame determined but vastly outnumbered Hanthawaddy defenses, and sacked the Hanthawaddy capital Pegu in May 1757. The 17-year-old kingdom was finished.

Afterwards, Chiang Mai and other Sawbwanates promptly sent in tribute. In the south too, the governors of Martaban (Mottama), Tavoy (Dawei) and Malacca also sent tribute and pledge loyalty to Alaungpaya. He then led a merciless campaign of reconquest of former Burmese territories, particularly against rogue Sawbwanates east of the Mekong river and Assam and Manipur to the west. As his focus turned towards the west and most Burmese troops were transferred to Athan (Assam) and Manihpura (Manipur), the Burmese-Siamese War of 1758-1760 erupted.

Burmese-Siamese War of 1758-1760
Alaungpaya had transferred the bulk of his forces (around 180,000) to the Manipuri valley by October 1757. Only a toke force of 10,000 was left to quell sporadic uprisings by a few remaining Mon elites.

In late December, Thai forces crossed the Dawna range and launched the invasion of Martaban and Tenasserim. The Mons again rose up in revolt against the Burmese and aided the Thais. By February 1758, all major towns along the Tenasserim coast except Martaban fell to Thai and Mon forces, cutting off the Malay peninsula off from the mainland.

As the majority of Burmese forces were involved in pacifying Manipura, the Thais, aided by the Mons were able to seize significant chunks of territories. In March, Alaungpaya was able to raise 80,000 levies in Burma which were quickly dispatched to relieve Martaban. The town was relieved in May 1758, but the Thais held onto surrounding territory. In May 1758, the Burmese attempted a counter-offensive against the Thais but it failed miserably, ending with the Burmese crown prince being captured and executed. This defeat sapped the Burmese of morale and the Thais were able to conquer most of the Malay peninsula by the end of 1758. Malacca fell after a 5 month siege. Most Burmese inhabitants of Malacca were executed, while survivors fled to the island of Temasek at the end of the Malay peninsula.

In March 1759, the Assamese rebellion capitulated, freeing up over 300,000 Burmese forces. They were rushed across Burma towards Martaban and Alaungpaya himself led the campaign to reconquer the Tenasserim coast. With a new levy of troops, Alaungpaya had over 450,000 soldiers under his command when he launched his now famed reconquest of the Tenasserim Coast and Malay Peninsula. With lightning speed and unorthodox warfare, Alaungpaya quickly regained much of the lost territory, while also instilling harsh purges against the Mons who had aided the Thais.

On December 12, 1759, Alaungpaya entered Siamese territory from the south, while another Burmese column under General Maha Thiha Thura crossed the Three Pagodas Pass with over 180,000 fresh forces. In April 1760, just before the Burmese and Thai New Year, the Burmese reached the Thai capital of Ayuttaya and began laying siege. Ayuttaya was about to fall when Alaungpaya was killed by a stray cannon shell in May 11, 1760. Who fired the shell remains a mystery but most Burmese historians maintain that it was a mis-fired Burmese cannon.

The death of Alaungpaya was kept a secret from most of the forces. His body was quickly embalmed and sent back to the then-capital of Shwebo on a palanquin. General Maha Thiha Thura carried out a well orchastrated withdrawal while tricking the Thais into a peace settlement. Burma retained Tenasserim while the Thais were given the Malay Peninsula.

A Dutch merchant working for the Dutch East India Company's factory in Syriam reported in 1762 that as much as 80,000 Burmese and 50,000 Thais may have been killed in the conflict, while up to 150,000 Mons were killed or displaced by Alaungpaya as retribution for their involvement in aiding the Thais. Alaungpaya's successor and eldest son, Naungdawgyi, had to pacify a restive population from the ensuring hardships of war-carnage and depopulation of certain areas. Naungdawgyi faced several rebellions, including from a few top generals who had served under Alaungpaya. As he had accompanied his father in the campaigns against Siam, he had grown weary against war and did not act on the advice of his ministers to conquer Siam.

Second Burmese-Siamese War and the Conquest of Siam (1766-1769)
Naungdawgyi died of tuberculosis in November 1763, only at the age of 29. As per Alaungpaya's wish, the crown passed onto Hsinbyushin, Naungdawgyi's younger brother. Hsinbyushin's ascension reinvigorated the hawkish ministers in court, who had been arguing for a resumption of war with Siam. These ministers were finally able to convince Hsinbyushin to embark on what would be later known as the Second Burmese-Siamese War, which ended in the sacking and annexation of Siam.

To be continued...

Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826)
The

Government and Politics
Myanmar is a constitutional monarchy, where the king is the head of the state but the prime minister is the head of the government. The National Unity League (NUL), a Buddhist-Nationalist party, has dominated Burmese politics since 1988. Myanmar has a bicameral parliament, called the Pyidaungzu Hluttaw. The 500 seat lower house of parliament is called the Amyotha Hluttaw while the upper house of parliament is called the Pyithu Hluttaw, with over 900 seats.

The National League for Democracy (NLD) is the main opposition party, but has failed to play a significant role in Burmese politics the early 1990s.

Foreign Affairs
Myanmar plays an proactive role in regional diplomacy and enjoys good diplomatic linkages, especially with Asian, African and South American nations. Myanmar maintains over 90 diplomatic missions around the world. Due to the country's history, Myanmar pursues a non-aligned stance but maintains cordial relations with all powers. It is a signatory of the Non-Alignment Movement and the Non Proliferation Treaty.

Myanmar is a member of the United Nations and a variety of international and regional organisations. It is also a founding member of the Asian Regional Council (ARC), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the United Nations and the Federation of Buddhist Nations (FBN).

Myanmar was the chairman of ARC in 2011 and is set to assume the chairmanship of ASEAN in 2014.

Territorial Disputes
Myanmar is engaged in a long standing territorial dispute with the Philippines, Sarawak, Vietnam and South China over the Spratly islands and other islands in the South China Sea. The dispute with Vietnam was the casus belli of the Second Indochinese War.

Currently, all sides involved have agreed to settle the dispute amicably, but negotiations have failed to deliver results. South China's

Population
Myanmar has the world's 6th largest population, at around 486 million, with a growth rate of around 1.09%. The majority of the population is concentrated along the four main rivers - the Irrawaddy, Chao Phraya, Mekong and Ganges.

Around 45% of Myanmar's population lives in urban areas. Myanmar has a gender ratio of 0.98:1 with a life expectancy of 73 years and a literacy rate of 83%. The government has implemented strong religiously influenced birth control programme in 2008 in order to offset the staggering recent rise in population.

Nearly 98% of the population adhere to Buddhism (95% Theravada, 3% Mahayana) while Christians and Muslims approximately form 1% each of the population. Religious activists claim that the government grossly underestimates the non-Buddhist population of Myanmar, claiming that at least 3% were Christian and 2% Muslim.

Largest Cities
3 of Asia's 20 largest cities are located in Myanmar. They are Yangon (world ranking 7th, 13.2 million), Saigon ( world ranking 18th, 7.7 million) and Calcutta (world ranking 20th, 6.8 million).

Inside the kingdom, the list of 10 largest cities with the city-proper populations are


 * 1. Yangon - largest port and commercial capital - 13.2 million
 * 2. Saigon - capital of Mekong Delta Province - 7.7 million
 * 3. Calcutta (Mizzumapura) - capital of Bengal Province - 6.8 million
 * 4. Singapore (Thihapura) - second largest port and southern commercial capital - 5.6 million
 * 5. Bangkok (Bun-kauk) - capital of Ayodhaya province (4.3 million)
 * 6. Mandalay - capital of Myanmar (3 million)
 * 7. Chittagong (Sittagaung) - capital of Chittagong Province (2.8 million)
 * 8. Malacca (Malekka) - capital of Malay province (2.4 million)
 * 9. Kyaukphyu - third largest port (2.2 million)
 * 10. Chongqing (Chaunkhin) - capital of Sichuan province (2 million)

The government is undertaking major construction projects to create urban corridors which will link major cities. This could significantly increase the populations of many major cities and towns across Myanmar.

Ethnic Groups
Myanmar has one of the most diverse populations around the world. The government officially recognizes 692 ethnic minorities grouped into 7 geography themed super-groups - the Tibeto-Burmans group, the Indo-Bangla group, the Tai-Shan group, the Mon-Khmer group, the Malay group, the Chinese group and the Sinhala Group.

The Tibeto-Burmans form around 46% of the total population at around 223 million. Most Bamar are found in the central provinces of historical Myanmar and in Siam, while the other minorities form considerable proportions of other provinces. The Tai-Shan form 13%, Indo-Bangla 10%, Chinese 7%, Sinhala at 5%, Malay and Mon-Khmer at 4% each and the remaining 11% made up of other ethnic minorities. The Tibeto-Burmans consist of the Bamar, Kachin, Karen, Rakhine, Tibetan, Chakma and other minorities. The preference given to Tibeto-Burmans by the Burmese government in terms of budgetary allocation, alongside dissatisfaction with Burman rule has fueled ethnic tensions across Myanmar.

In 1933, the government launched a widely-criticized move to 'Burmanize' the other ethnic minorities, such as making Burmese the only medium of higher education, restricting the publishing of non-Burmese language materials and 'Speak Burmese' campaigns. The unpopular campaign was halted in 1981 but the effects were long lasting as the 2010 Census reported that nearly 76% of ethnic minorities listed Burmese as their first language and preferred language of interaction.

Religion
Myanmar is an overwhelmingly Buddhist nation, with nearly 95% of the population practicing Theravada Buddhism. The other 5% consists of 3% Mahayana Buddhist, 1% Christian and 1% Muslim.

Myanmar enjoys freedom of religion in theory, but the State actively supports Buddhist efforts not only within the country but abroad. The treatment of Muslims in Bangla province has received criticism from Western states and human rights activists, although the government maintains that the abuses are undocumented and magnified. Christian activists claim that the government actively encourages the conversion of non-Buddhists to Buddhism, offering a variety of incentives. Proselytizing is a criminal offense and each year, the government deports hundreds of under-cover Christian missionaries.

Myanmar contains many important pilgrimage sites for Buddhists, including Bodh Gaya, the Birth place of the Buddha, the Shwedagon pagoda and the ruins of Bagan, Mrauk U and Ayodhya. Myanmar also has the second highest ordained Buddhist population, at around 9 million monks and nuns. Myanmar is home to the Ananda Foundation, the world's largest Buddhist missionary organization which is funded by the Burmese goverment and the population.

In recent years, a puritanical practice of Buddhism has gained popularity amongst both the political and intellectual elites, prompting many observers to be voice concern over the future of religious minorities.