Timeline of 16th Century (No America)

The 16th century was dominated by the joint kingdoms of Castille and Aragon, and that of Portugal. Explorers, merchants and diplomats from both powers circumnavigated the globe, took a growing influence in such far markets as China, Japan, India, the Swahili coast and Arabia.

Indonesia
The Europeans relied on the Spice trade, which they dominated through their total control of the spice islands, with Spanish trading outposts on Tidore, Cirebon (rebuilt after the war with the Sultanate) Brunei, San Salvador in Hispaniola and many bases in the Philippines and with Portuguese outposts on Ternate, Malacca, Surabaya, Ambon and Solor.

Although relations between the two were at times fraught, almost coming to war in 1528 and 1574, the two crown were eventually united by Philip II of Spain, who became Philip I of Portugal in 1581 after the death of the childless King Henry and the extinction of the House of Aviz. There were many in the Portuguese court who disapproved of a Spanish ruler and the self styled King Antonio of Portugal ruled from Antilia and then Halmahera until 1587. The Iberian Union would see the entire world's production of nutmeg, cloves and other highly prized commodities under one power.

However from around 1550 onwards, other European powers attempted to break the Iberian monopoly on the spices from the Moluccas or Spice Islands. After decades of raiding and maritime privateering conducted mostly by the Dutch and English against the Spanish, with whom they were frequently at war, the protestant nations began to establish permanent claims in the Spice trade. In the 1540s, the Dutch founded a base in Buru in 1553, and then a further outpost in the Sula Islands in 1558. The English also attempted competition, with Sir Francis Drake founding a colony at Manipa and Kelang during his circumnavigation of the globe.

By the end of the 16th century the French had also established a presence in Eastern Indonesia, though with the Wars of Religion, many French kings and chief ministers were focused on centralising policies at home.

India
After initial poor relations between Vasco De Gama and the Zamorin of Calicut, the Portuguese returned in greater numbers, taking many sites on the Malabar coast by force, for example Goa in 1509, Calicut in 1510, Negapatam 1507 and Bombay in 1530.

The Spanish meanwhile, leaving the Malabar coast as a perceived sphere of Portuguese interest, established bases in Sri Lanka, such as at Colombo in 1507 and Tuticorin in 1518.

Similarly in India, earlier colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns were eventually joined by Dutch and English colonies. The first Dutch settlement was at Pulicat in 1575 and the first English settlement came in 1580 at Surat.