China (Age of Kings)

China, officially the Chinese National State, is a state located in East Asia. As the largest country in East Asia by population and economy, it is a major power in Asia and a growing power internationally. With a long history and varied culture, China is a dominant cultural force internationally as well.

Historically the area that now comprises China has been ruled by a succeeding number of dynasties ruled by emperors. Growing European and Japanese encroachment on China's territorial and political sovereignty weakened the authority of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, sparking an upsurge of Chinese nationalism that would dominate the state through to the present. The Qing Dynasty would be overthrown in 1912 and after a brief republican period the modern state of China would be born.

Today China represents a growing political and economic center for world affairs. While not a member of either the American or German-led security umbrellas, China is working alongside both powers to position itself well within global geopolitics. Many analysts suggest that China could become a superpower before the middle of the century.

Earlier History
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"Expel the Tatar Barbarians"
China under the Qing dynasty had experienced tremendous growth and prestige for centuries. However, the strength of European nations and their desire for favorable privileges and economic concessions led to brief but disastrous wars for China. Attempts to modernize often stalled in the face of conservative reaction and hostility soon festered against the Manchu dynasty. Frustrated by the lack of significant reform, expatriate Chinese began to coalesce into two main groups. The first was the Baohuanghui, or Protect the Emperor Society, which was led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao and advocated for constitutional monarchism and reform. The second was the Tongmenghui, or Revolutionary Alliance, that was led by Sun Yat-sen and focused on revolution, republicanism, and anti-Manchu sentiments. By the turn of the 20th century, modernization was underway but internal unrest was reaching a breaking point as the Chinese desired to rule themselves and "Expel the Tartar Barbarians" that, they believed, had humiliated China.

The first flash of revolution began on 10 October, 1911, when Qing troops tried to disperse protestors trying to prevent the sale of national railroads to foreign interests. As the situation became violent, local revolutionaries decided that they couldn't wait and launched the Wuchang Uprising, which captured the city of Wuchang and exposed the weakness of the Qing government. Both the Baohuanghui and the Tongmenghui supported the Wuchang Uprising, as did many other smaller societies. Internal unrest snowballed and what little control the Qing had throughout China quickly collapsed as more uprisings occurred. After four months of trying to regain control, the Qing dynasty entered into negotiations and the transition to the Republic of China began. Sun Yat-sen was elected to be the first president.

The National Question
China was now a republic, but many issues plagued the new government. Much of the military was effectively rogue, focused only on the goals of their local commanding general and fragmenting the country into numerous military cliques. The government's authority only stretched across Hebei province and issues of administration and taxation in other parts of the country could only happen with the consent of the warlords. Mongolia and Tibet both quickly declared independence and the central government was powerless to stop them. Finally, the foreign powers that exploited Qing weakness fully expected to retain their extraterritorial privileges and concessions.

Politically, the new government was divided. Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated as the first president but many felt that he could not command the loyalty of the nation's military. Qing strongman Yuan Shikai was nominated to be president, as he was in control of the Beiyang Army, the largest and most modernized military force in China. Tensions soon emerged between the two leaders, as Yuan's was confirmed as president but Sun Yat-sen wanted the capital in Nanjing, far from Yuan's power base. Yuan eventually won out and established his government in Beijing, forming what was known as the Beiyang Government. In the National Assembly, supporters of the Tongmenghui formed the Kuomintang Party while the Baohuanghui eventually coalesced into the Progressive Party. The two parties soon began to form a rivalry over what form of government, republican or constitutional monarchy, should rule the country. Cells of Qing supporters were also present throughout northeast China and agitated for counterrevolution and Qing restoration. This loose network was known as the Society for Monarchical Constitutionalism or the Royalist Party.

Yuan Shikai became increasingly more authoritarian than some in the republican government had hoped. In the 1912 National Assembly elections, the Nationalists won a majority of seats in both the House and Senate, while the various parties that would merge to form the Progressives and independents made up the rest. When the Nationalist legislative leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated in 1913, Sun Yat-sen and many of the Nationalists suspected Yuan Shikai, but there was no evidence. When Yuan negotiated a large loan from the Western powers to supply and pay his military forces without consulting the National Assembly, Sun Yat-sen and other Nationalists staged a rebellion called the Second Revolution. Disorganized and up against the powerful Beiyang Army, the Nationalists were defeated and many fled abroad. Yuan Shikai used the unsuccessful rebellion as a pretext to assert his complete control over the government, expelling the Nationalists and browbeating the National Assembly into officially electing him president in 1914. When the expulsion of the Nationalists prevented the National Assembly from meeting due to the lack of quorum, he replaced many of the empty seats with supporters. Yuan's control over the government was complete.

"China Heroically Stands in the Universe"
Over time, Yuan Shikai concluded that the Chinese nation was not yet ripe for democracy and needed a conservative and authoritarian government to ensure that the country would not collapse into chaos. Between his supporters in the National Assembly and the military, Yuan began to canvas for supporting a return to monarchy. Many members of the Progressive Party were in favor, harkening back to its days as the Baohuanghui, but popular opinion was more lukewarm. Even so, Yuan moved ahead with his plan. On December 11, the National Assembly petitioned Yuan to take the throne and rule as a constitutional emperor. Yuan symbolically refused, but relented when they petitioned him a second time the same day. On December 12, Yuan Shikai proclaimed the Empire of China and himself as the Hongxian Emperor.