Japan (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum)



Japan (Japanese: 明湄 Myōmi; formally 大明湄民国 Dai-Myomi Minkoku; literally Greater Japanese Republic; officially Republic of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, Korea and Russia, stretching from the southern part of Sakhalin island in the north to the South Pacific archipelago in the south.

Its previous official name is Dai-Nihon Sokoku or Dai-Nippon Sokoku (Japanese: 大日本祖国; literally Greater Japanese Fatherland; officially State of Japan). But after the World War II, the National Congress of Japan regulated the change of Japan's name through the popular referendum in 1946. The "Nihon" name of Japan replaced by its unofficial name, "Myomi".

Japan is an archipelago of 8,964 islands. The five largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū, Shikoku and Taiwan, together accounting for ninety-six percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's eigth-largest population, with over 153 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 40 million residents.

Climate
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into seven principal climatic zones: Karafuto-Chishima-Hokkaidō, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, Ryūkyū Islands, Taiwan and South Pacific. The northernmost zone, Karafuto, Hokkaido and Chishima islands, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.

In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshū's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn wind. The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night; precipitation is light, though winters are usually snowy. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.

The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation such as the blooming of the spring cherry blossoms, the calls of the summer cicada and fall foliage colors that are celebrated in art and literature.

In Taiwan, the climate is generally marine and varies widely by season in the Northern part and the mountain areas. The Southern part of the island, however, belongs to the tropical belt and is warm and humid all year. The southernmost part of the country, South Pacific islands has a tropical climate all year round with an annual mean temperature of 82 °F (28 °C). Rainfall is heavy throughout the year, averaging a total of 150 inches (3,800 mm). The average humidity over the course of the year is 82%, and although rain falls more frequently between July and October, there is still much sunshine.

The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 °C (41.2 °F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 °C (77.4 °F). The highest temperature ever measured in Japan—40.9 °C (105.6 °F)—was recorded on 16 August 2007. The main rainy season begins in October in South Pacific islands, then in early January in Taiwan, and the rain front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.

Empire of Japan era (1854-1930)
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises. Bakufu government, led by Great Councillor (大老 Tairō) Ii Naosuke began several programmes to modernize the military of Japan. When Emperor Ninko suddenly died in 1865, Ii installed his own Imperial candidate, Prince Arisugawa Taruhito for the Chrysanthemum throne as Emperor Eiwa. In this strong position, Bakufu government not only control the military, but also the Kyoto Imperial Court.

Ii's actions led to the First Japanese Civil War between 1866-1868. Afraid the collapse of Shogunate in the future, moderate Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu agreed to cooperate with Ii. Both parties agreed to open up to international community and began a modernization, not only in military, but also in political, judicial and social institutions. Under Ii's leadership, Bakufu government unified all local armies into one national army and national navy which equipped by modern weapons and Western techniques. The Shogunate also proclaimed the establishment of Empire of Japan and established the centralized state nominally unified under the Emperor although Imperial Court already weakened by Ii's interventions and most of pro-Imperial elements in government purged.

Han system officialy abolished in 1871 and replaced by modern regional prefectures under Bakufu government in Edo (renamed as Tokyo), four divisions of society abolished in 1874 and Western bureaucracy system officialy implemented in 1875. All members of Kyoto ancient court nobility and former daimyos formed new single aristocratic class, kazoku. Imperial Senate, composed by kazoku nobility representatives assembled in Tokyo on 1875 and promulgated Tokyo Charter, proto-constitution of Japan.

Ii's reforms inspired after the Chancellor of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck's actions which modernized Imperial Germany to become a nation with strong military leadership. Ii even adopted Western Cabinet system to his government and appointed himself as the Chancellor of the Realm ( 太政大臣 Daijō Daijin) from 1885 until his own death in 1891.The Bakufu reforms transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. Emperor Eiwa died in 1895. His brother, Prince Takehito succeeded him and enthroned as Emperor Kyowa

After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin. Japan's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 50 million in 1920.

Emperor Kyowa died in 1913 and replaced by his daughter, Princess Meiko which enthroned as Empress Anmei. Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu also died aftermath and replaced by his adopted son, Tokugawa Iesato. As result, Kyoto Imperial Court became powerless and moderate Shogunate strengthened its position.

Japan entered World War I in 1914 and sided with Central Powers. Due to heavy economic embargo, Japan moved its side to Triple Entente in 1916. Central Powers defeated in 1918. Japan gained German territory in Liaodong peninsula and South Pacific islands.

Although already win the war, Japan’s economy already suffered and almost collapse. Peasant rebellions erupted across the country. The Shogunate, under Taikun Tokugawa Iesato agreed to adopt the written constitution for Empire of Japan. The Imperial Diet, composed by Senate and House of Commons assembled in 1920 and first written constitution in Japan, Anmei Constitution adopted in 1924.

The workers and peasant revolution against Imperial government, however, was inevitable in 1925.

Second Japanese Civil War (1925-1930)
On 15 March 1925, rebellion broke out in Niigata among the local farmers. This rebellion soon organized by the left-wing movement, led by Nationalist Party (Kokuminto).

The Worker and Peasant People’s Army (Nominrodogun) formed in 27 March 1925, led by Lieutenant Imada Matsutaka as the military wing of the Nationalist and its coalition parties. The Nationalists, led by Nagayama Yoshida pushed for social revolution modeled after Russian Revolution of 1917. The revolution spread throughout Japan, and participants seized military and civil powers in individual cities. The power takeover was achieved everywhere without loss of life and the control was firmly in the hands of the strongest revolutionary group, the Nationalists.

Nevertheless, the rebellion caused great concern around military elements of government for its establishment and the Imperial Government reacted by the sent the troops to suppress the revolutionaries in early April. The revolutionaries and the imperialists fought a protracted battle in Tohoku and and Niigata known as the Battle of Sakurayama that would last until April 10, 1925.

The Battle of Sakurayama marked the beginning the Japanese Civil War between the revolutionaries and the imperial government which would lasted from April 1925 until May 1929. The revolutionaries itself composed by the Japanese republicans, leftists and social democrats and the Korean independent fighters who promised by the Nationalists for restored Korean independence if the revolution succeeded.

Both of the National-Liberalists and the pro-Constitutional Monarchy factions, comprised by Shidehara Kijūrō, Etsu Hōtori, Ozaki Yukio and Baron Makoto Ikeda proposed the constitutional amendment to abolished Bakufu military government and established the constitutional monarchy, modeled after British Empire with the Empress as effective head of state as the form of compromise

The more radical pro-Imperial Court faction refused the proposal and wanted the Empress has the real prerogative power over the nation and the military. But, the moderates faction already gained majority in government. Shidehara succeed to become the new Prime Minister of Japan in August 23, 1927, but he failed to maintained the authority over the country again.

The Revolutionary forces successfully defeated the Government forces in Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Kyushu on April 27, 1930. Prime Minister Shidehara agreed to ceasefire and signed the Instrument of Surrender in Myomi hamlet on May 16, 1930. Empress Anmei announced her abdication from the throne in May 18, 1930 and Shidehara Kijuro automatically became the de-facto provisional head of state of Japan. The Empire of Japan officially abolished in May 21, 1930 and the provisional revolutionary Republican government, led by Nagayama Yoshida and Etsu Hotori effectively took over the control of the country in May 29, 1930.

First Republic era (1931-1942)
main article, see: First Republic of Japan

After the defeat of Imperial Japan forces by the Revolutionary forces on April 27, 1930, the revolutionary coalition formed a provisional government in Osaka with Etsu Hotori as the head of government. The provisional government ruled the country from May 1930 to February 1931.

The new republican government of Japan proclaimed on February 16, 1931 and the new republican constitution had been promulgated by the first National Congress on February 18. It established a single-party state system under the Nationalist Party of Japan.

Under the new government, Japan subsequently introduced many radical reforms included the abolition of noble titles, the nationalization of all zaibatsu companies, industries, and banks, the abolition of State Shinto and the simplification of national language

The Republic also tried to restores the good relationship with China and Korea. With China, Japan agreed to ceasefire and ultimately ended the Sino-Japanese War in March 1931. Japan also negotiates with Korean independence activists and resulted the give the Korean the rights of self-government in July 1931.

With the introduction of Great Economic Plan in 1932, Japan economy recovered and maintain its status as the leading economy power in Asia

World War II (1939-1945)
for main article, see: Fascist Japan

Since 1932, President Yoshida conducted Japan to embrace the peaceful foreign policy and ended all offensive policy to made the Republic into the neutral nation. But, despite his internationalistic socialist nature, Dr. Yoshida is a prominent supporter of Pan-Asianism. He belief the socialist world only can be achieved by the equal status between the Western and the Eastern world, and to realized it, the Asia must united under one roof and strengthening their own social-economic power, free from the Western imperialism

When Nazi Germany started the invasion to Poland at the end of 1939 and resulted the Second World War in Europe, the Party radical right wing faction, led by the head of Peasantry Protection Committee, Nakano Seigo view this event as the chance for the realization of Pan-Asianism. But, the left-wing and the centre faction of the Party against the idea and accuses its as the “new militarism”. The Party Central Committee meeting of December 1939 filled by heated debates about the possibility of Japan entry to the war

Due the success of the Great Economic Plan, Japan re-expanded its national arms industry at the middle of 1930s. By 1939, the weapons, artilleries and tanks productions of Japan reached its peak and the Japanese Army was the largest armies in Asia and Pacific.

The Party right-wingers pressured President Yoshida to fulfill the aims of Pan-Asianism idea by joined the Germany in the war with Europe. At first, President refused, but the rightists threatened by plan will boycott the National Party Congress in 1942. The left-wingers soon formed the Anti-War Opposition to oppose the right-winger threat and demands.

Afraid of the Party internal disunity, President convened the Council of Ministers immediately. PM Yoshinohe agree to step down from his office and after the New Year plenum of the Congress, Nakano Seigo appointed as the new office holder in 5 January 1940

The leftists protested and situation turned chaotic. The left-winger and centre formed the Joint Opposition, led by Hōtori Etsu. At the mass meeting in January 18, 1940, Hotori called for the resignation of Nakano from his recent position to the citizens

The Opposition then organized a nation-wide general strikes which threatened the national economy situation. As the act of moral responsibility, Nagayama Yoshida step down as Party Politburo member, but retain his position as the Party Congress Chairman and as the President of the Republic.

As result, Dr. Yoshida position become powerless and made the rightist gained a chance to take over the national government. Under PM Nakano leadership, Japan formed the alliance with Germany and Italy with the signing of Tripartite Pact in 27 September 1940. On 1 Oktober 1940, Japan declared the war to British Empire and France, and then also Netherland who colonized the South and Southeast Asia.

With the occupation of French Indochina in the years of 1940–41, the United States placed embargoes on Japan of strategic materials such as scrap metal and oil, which were vitally needed for the war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing the Southeast Asia campaign and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of South East Asia—specifically British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia).

The ultranationalist faction of the military, led by Lieutenant General Fukuda Shogi advising PM Nakano to advanced the action and declared the war to United States of America. Its resulted the controversy within the Party and the military, especially from the Navy. Marshal Matsutaka Imada, the Commander-in-chief of the Army said those action is courageous and endangered the Japan’s interests itself in Asia because the imbalance factor of the army and artillery sizes with the United States.

But, PM Nakano agreed with the advice and arranged the attack to American naval base in Pacific. The Imperial Japanese Navy made its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, on Sunday morning, 7 December 1941 while the Japanese ambassadors to United States, Nomura Kichisaburō and special envoy Kurusu Saburō tried to negotiate peace and understanding with Washington.

The Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy and its defending Army Air Forces and Marine air forces sustained significant losses. The primary objective of the attack was to incapacitate the United States long enough for Japan to establish its long-planned Southeast Asian empire and defensible buffer zones. The U.S. public saw the attack as a treacherous act and rallied against the Empire of Japan. The United States entered the European Theatre and Pacific Theater in full force. Four days later, Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany declared war on the United States, merging the separate conflicts.

President Yoshida protest and dissatisfied with those action by Nakano administration and voluntarily resigned from his position as President of the Republic on 9 December because the military did not reported the plan and secretly arranged the attack from him. Marshal Matsutaka Imada elected as the successor of Yoshida, but have no power to regained the public order.

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched offensives against an Allied forces in South East Asia, with simultaneous attacks on Hong Kong, British Malaya and the Philippines.

The South-East Asian Campaign was preceded by years of propaganda and espionage activities carried out in the region by the Japan. The Japanese espoused their vision of an Asia for Asians to the people of Asia, who had lived under European rule for generations. As a result, many inhabitants in the region actually sided with the Japanese.

On June 13, 1942, Marshal Imada resign from his position after suffering the pressures from PM Nakano. Former Imperial Army general, Suzuki Kantaro appointed as the acting Head of State from June 14, 1942 until August 13, 1945, but the all President's constitutional power already transferred to Nakano Seigo, decorated him as the dictator.

With the help from the Opposition within the Party, Dr. Yoshida, Marshal Imada and some senior statesmen escaped to Busan, Korea, and later to Vladivostok, Soviet Union. The exiled statesmen later formed the National Committee for Fatherland Liberation and its military wings, Japanese People’s Liberation Army on 14 September 1942.

The resistance committee later more known as the "Vladivostok Government". Nagayama Yoshida appointed as the President of the exile government and Hōtori Etsu as the prime minister. The junior General of the Army, General Katobushi Toshio became the nominal commander-in-chief of resistance army. The Vladivostok Government sent their delegations to Washington to re-negotiate the peace. The United States then recognized the Vladivostok Committee as the legitimate government of Japan islands on 3 November 1942.

This setback of the Pacific battle was followed in June 1942 by the catastrophic loss of a four carrier task force at the Battle of Midway. Midway was a decisive defeat for the Imperial Japanese Navy, and proved to be the turning point of the war. Australian land forces defeated Japanese Marines in New Guinea at the Battle of Milne Bay in September 1942, which was the first land defeat suffered by the Japanese in the Pacific. Further defeats by the Allies at Guadalcanal in September 1942, and New Guinea in 1943 put the Empire of Japan on the defensive for the remainder of the war.

By 1944, the Allies had seized or bypassed and neutralized many of Japan's strategic bases through amphibious landings and bombardment. By early 1945, the U.S. Marines had gotten the control of the Ogasawara Islands marking the beginning of the fall of the islands of Japan.

With the Allies help, Vladivostok Army led by General Katobushi entered the islands from Hokkaido island on March 1945 and success to captured the entire islands (except Taiwan) on July 1945 with the fall of Minkyo. Nakano Seigo and another war leaders arrested by the Allies on August 1945. After concerned the Postdam Declaration, Vladivostok Government agreed to seek an armistice with the Allies. In a national radio address of August 14, General Katobushi announced that termination of the war to the Japanese people

Beginning of the New Republic (1945-1948)
for the main article, see: Second Republic of Japan

On August 15, United States President Harry Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur as chief of Allied Powers Transitional Administration for Japan (APTAJ), to supervise the "pseudo-occupation" of Japan. and to overlook the demilitarization process of Japan. APTAJ was given direct control over the main islands of Japan (Honshū, Hokkaidō, Shikoku, Kyūshū), Kuril islands, Southern Sakhalin and the immediately surrounding islands, while outlying possessions were administered by each appropriated Allied Powers administration as follows:


 * Korea, under the United States Administration for the Reconstruction of Korea (USARK)


 * Manchuria, under the United States Administration for Manchuria (USAM)


 * Taiwan and Ryukyu islands, under the Republic of China Administration in Taiwan (ROCAT)


 * Japanese possessions in Pacific Islands, under Australian-based British Royal Commands for Japanese South Seas Provinces (BRCJSSP)

However, the pre-war Dominion governments for Manchuria and Korea still retained their status quo but under supervisions by both of USARK and USAM.

The Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan were also established to supervise the occupation of Japan.

MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30, and immediately decreed several laws: No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people. No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food. Flying the Hinomaru or "Rising Sun" war flag was initially severely restricted.

On September 2, Japan formally ended the war with the signing of the Japanese Armistice Agreement. On September 6, US President Harry S. Truman approved a document titled "US Initial Post-War Policy for Japan". The document set two main objectives for the occupation: (1) eliminating Japan's war potential and (2) turning Japan into a neutral, non-aligned country.

Japan's 1931 constitution, amended under Allied supervision, renounced war and banned Japan from maintaining any war forces. The armed forces of Japan intended to be only the defense forces. This was intended to prevent the country from ever becoming an aggressive military power again. The police forces separated from army to avoid any military influences and became the independent civilian institution on December 12, 1945

While these other reforms were taking place, various military tribunals, most notably the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Ichigaya, were trying Japan's war criminals and sentencing many to death and imprisonment.

On January 7, 1946, Nagayama Yoshida elected again as the President of the Republic for the second time. In his second time as President, Nagayama planned for the negotiation with the Allies authorities for the Japan sovereignty restoration on January 9, 1946.

After the meeting between General Katobushi Toshio of Japan, General Douglas MacArthur of America, Lieutenant-General Xi Guofeng of China and General Franklin Thompson of Britain on February 15, 1946, the Allied agreed to sign the Yokohama Agreement on 19 February that loosened their dominance over the government of the Republic of Japan. The native Japanese authority, especially the Nationalist Party of Japan was de facto relieved from Allied control. With the permission from APTAJ, the Party able to re-establish its political organizations throughout the islands

During the 1946 Nationalist Party Congress, the new right-wing faction of the Party gained a majority in Central Committee and steered the Party’s policy to be more cooperated with the Allies, especially with the United States. The leader of the new right-wing faction was Mizunari Kazama, the secretary of the Party Committee of Tokyo. Mizunari appealed the Party to cooperate with the Allies occupation (especially the United States) to gained the support and recognition for newly re-established Republic.

On November 15, 1946, the National Congress regulated the amendment of 1931 Constitution and passed the law to change the native official name of Japan from "Nihon" (or "Nippon") to "Myomi" and its official name became Dai-Myomi Minkoku. This actions described by President Yoshida as "the new step of 1925 Revolution to transformed this nation into new society and moved from its Imperial past".

The government of Japan and the APTAJ talks on Japan sovereignty were held in July 1946. The Myomi government demanded the return of Taiwan, Penghu, Okinawa, the Amami islands, the Ogasawara Islands and the South Seas provinces as the part of Japan legitimate territories. The APTAJ agreed and in return demanded Japan to became a neutral nation.

The first post-war Japan general election held all around the islands, except in Chinese- and British-occupied Japanese territories on March 7, 1947 was a victory for the right-wing faction of MKT, which dominated the party gained 209 seats while the left-wingers who run the opposition list only gained 114 seats in the Legislative Council.

Japan regained its sovereignty on February 16, 1948, with the signing of Honolulu Peace Treaty by the Republic of Japan, the United States, British Empire and Republic of China which guaranteed Japan neutrality. The Allied troops completely withdrawal from Japan on April 4, 1948.