500 - 450 BC (Bellum Romanum)

''The period of 510 to 271 BCE covers the rise of the Roman Republic as a major nation in the Italian peninsula. In 509 the republic would be declared falling the overthrowing of the Roman Monarchy, and would be formed through numerous conflicts with its neighbors. Initially ruled solely by the patrician classes of the city, in 494 the Plebeian Revolt would establish a reformed government in Rome in which plebeian and patrician classes were more equally represented, and the reforms that followed would lay the foundation for Roman government over the next few centuries.

The Roman Republic fought numerous conflicts of expansion with its neighbors, becoming the dominant state of the central Italian Peninsula, and leader of military alliances with most of the surrounding Latin States. Rome's expedited growth and power was not halted until 390, when the Roman army was defeated by an army of Senomes under the Gallic chieftain Brennus, who proceeded to sack the city of Rome itself.

Rome recovered from the war with the Gauls, and successfully defended itself from war with the Etruscans and other nations seeking to take advantage of Rome's weakness. Over the course of the fourth century into the third century BCE Rome would conquer most of the Italian Peninsula, in the Latin War, the Samnite Wars, and the Pyrrhic War, establishing the Roman Republic as a dominant military and political power in the Mediterranean. ''

Overthrow of the Roman Monarchy (510 - 509)
Before the creation of the Roman Republic, the city of Rome was ruled by a series of kings, beginning in 753 with the legendary founder Romulus. By 510 a total of seven kings had ruled Rome, with Lucius Tarquinius Superbus serving as incumbent. Tarquinius became king in 535 BCE, the son of the fifth king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, after arranging for the murder of the current king, Servius Tullius, together with the help of his wife Tullia Minor, securing the throne for himself.

Immediately Tarquinius became an unpopular ruler among the people of Rome. Despite winning a number of military victories to succor his prestige, Tarquinius committed a number of faults, such as refusing to bury his predecessor Servius Tullius, and executing a number of the leading senators whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius. Tarquinius also diminished the size and authority of the Senate, by not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the Senate on government matters. Capital criminal cases were judged by Tarquinius without the advice of counsellors, creating fear among his rivals. Together these breaks from tradition caused growing disdain against Tarquinius from numerous factions.

In 510 BCE Tarquinius declared war against the Rutulli, a wealthy nation near Rome, seeking to plunder and obtain spoils, partially to assuage the anger of his subjects. Tarquinius launched a strike against the enemy capital of Ardea, attempting to take the city by storm, but instead was engulfed in a long siege outside the city.

It is during this war that Sextus Tarquinius, the son of the king, was sent on a military errand to Collatia, a town approximately fifteen kilometers northeast of Rome by the Via Collatina. Sextus was welcomed into the governor's mansion by Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king's nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini.

According to legend, Sextus and Lucius debated the virtues of wives while at a wine party, when Lucius volunteered to settle the debate by riding to his house to see what his wife Lucretia was doing. Upon arrival the men saw that she was weaving her maids, and Lucius' wife was declared the most virtuous. That night Sextus sneaked into Lucretia's room, offering her the choice of submitting to his sexual advances and become his wife, or be killed alongside a slave as to imply that she was caught in adulterous sex. Lucretia went to her father's house the next morning, asking for vengeance for her rape, and stabbed a concealed dagger through her heart.

Lucius Junius Brutus, a leading citizen and the grandson of Rome's fifth king Tarquinius Priscus), Lucretia's father Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, another leading citizen Publius Valerius Publicola, and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus gathered the youth of Collatia and then went to Rome, demanding that the people rise against the king and overthrow the Tarquins. Brutus called for an assembly of the Tribunus Celerum to revoke the king's power, and the people voted for the deposition of the king, and the banishment of the royal family.

Next Brutus summoned the comitia curiata, an organization of patrician families, and called for their support in overthrowing the king. Brutus spoke of the king's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome, and pointed out that Superbus had come to rule only by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife's father. Following these proceedings the king's wife Tullia fled the city for the camp at Ardea, where her husband and his army remained.

It is during this period that a debate began on Rome's new form of government. Brutus open the discussion among an assembly of patricians, proposing the banishment of the Tarquins from all territories of Rome, and an appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. To prevent the tyranny of a king from resurfacing, the assembly chose a republican form of government in which the executive power of the king was divided among two consuls, ruling in one year terms. Brutus also renounced all claim to the throne of king, and as part of this temporary system, perfect of the city Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex. Lucretius proposed that Brutus and Collatinus be selected as the first two consuls of the Roman Republic, and the pair were ratified by the assembly. To rally the rest of the population to their cause, the body of Lucretia was paraded through the streets, as the plebeians were summoned to the forum for legal assembly. A general election was held among the people, which abolished the monarchy and confirmed the right of the republican government.

Lucretius was left in command of the city, while Brutus proceeded with an army of Roman citizens to the camp at Ardea. The king received word of the events in the city and the advance toward his camp by Brutus however, and fled to camp for the city. Brutus was received as a hero by Tarquinius' former army, and the king's sons were expelled from their ranks. Tarquinius Superbus arrived at the city and was refused entry, forced to flee with his family into exile.

Establishment of the Republic
The successful uprising resulted in the exile of former king Tarquinius and his family, and the establishment of the Roman Republic under Brutus and Collatinus as first consuls. After Brutus returned to the city of Rome following his seizure of the king's former army near Ardea, Brutush had the people swear an oath vowing never to allow any man again to be king in Rome, reaffirming oaths made by the conspirators overthrowing the monarch. Brutus also replenished the number of senators to three hundred from the principal men of the equites, and created the new office of rex sacrorum to carry out the religious duties that had previously been performed by the kings.

As part of Brutus' attempts to exile all Tarquins and their supporters, Brutus shockingly demanded the resigning of his colleague Collatinus, as he bore the name of Tarquinius. Fearing what might become of him should he refuse, Collatinus accepted Brutus' demands, and his father-in-law Publius Valerius Poplicola was selected to succeed him.

At the same time the king Tarquinius sent numerous envoys to the Senate, requesting the return of his personal property, but in reality subverting a number of Rome's leading men. This plot to reinstate the monarchy was discovered, and those found guilty were put to death by the consuls. Brutus' own sons Titus and Tiberius were forced to be condemned by their father, after having been caught acting in the plot.

Patrician Era (509 - 494)
Constitutional changes following the overthrowing of the Roman monarchy and establishment of a republic were mostly temporary and not as extensive as legend suggests. Initially one of the most important constitutional changes would be the revision of the chief executive. Whereas before the revolution the chief executive was a king, elected for life by the senators, two praetores were elected by the citizens for an annual term. The office of praetores eventually became known as that of consul, creating a system in which power was divided between two individuals, to prevent one person from gaining too much control. Each consul was responsible for keeping his colleague in check, while prosecution could also be put in place in the event of a consul's abuse of office. Initially the consuls, when working together, exercised as much power as the former king, and the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies were nearly as powerless as they had been under a monarch.

Under the Roman Monarchy the Senate consisted only of patricians, but the revolution to overthrow the monarchy had heavily depleted the ranks of the senate, and groups of plebeians (conscripti) were called upon to fill the vacancies. The Senate transitioned into a senate consisting of both patricians and plebeians, although the patricians still held authority over the plebeians, as they could not vote on on votes pertaining to the patricians, nor could they vote on the interrex.

War with Veii and Tarquinii (509)
With his plot discovered, Tarquinius sought to take back rule of the city of Rome by force. Tarquinius' family had originated from Tarquinii in Etruria, and he was able to gather support from the Etruscan cities of Veii and Tarquinii, using his family ties and the cities' mutual annoyance at Rome to raise an army. The two cities' armies were led by the king, who personally led the Etruscan infantry, while his son commanded the alliance's cavalry. The gathered force met the consul Brutus on the field of battle near the Silva Arsia, a forest nearby Rome. Brutus' army from Rome was led in part by Publius Valerius, who commanded the Roman infantry, and Lucius Junius Brutus, who commanded the city's equites.

Aruns spied from afar the Consul's lictors, and was able to recognize that the consul was on the field of battle himself in command of the Roman cavalry. The two cousins charged each other, and speared each other to death, before being joined by each side's infantry. The battle continued indecisively for some time, with the army of Tarquinii forcing back the Romans, and the Veientes being routed. Finally the Etruscan forces fled the field of battle, and victory was claimed by the Romans. Consul Valerius collected the spoils of battle from the fallen Etruscans before returning to Rome to celebrate a triumph on 1 March 509 BCE, followed by the funeral of Brutus. The elderly Spurius Lucretius was selected as consul in place of Brutus, but he died soon after, and Marcus Horatius Pulvillus became consul in his place, becoming the fifth and final consul of the first year of the Republic.

War with Clusium (508)
Having failed in his attempt to take back Rome, Tarquinius next turned to Lars Porsena, king of Clusium, who agreed to aid him in a second war against Rome. The Roman Senate learned of Porsena's advance toward Rome, and feared that the city might fall to Clusium, so began taking a number of steps to prepare the city. Grain was purchased from the Volsci and from Cumae, while licenses for the sale of salt was nationalized. The lower classes were also exempt from taxes and port customs duties. Together these measures helped to ensure the population of Rome stayed strong during the attack.

Porsena laid siege to the city of Rome, and as his soldiers were surging towards the Pons Sublicius, one of the bridges over the Tiber leading into the city, forces under the command of Publius Horatius Cocles, joined by Titus Herminius Aquilinus and Spurius Lartius, successfully held off the attackers so that the bridge could be destroyed. Herminius and Lartius retreated as the bridge was almost destroyed, while Horatius waited until the bridge had fallen, then swam back across the river under enemy fire. Horatius's efforts were successful, and Porsena next moved to blockade the city. A garrison was established on the Janiculum, while river transportation was blocked, and raiding parties were sent into the surrounding countryside.

Ultimately Porsena would be unable to fully take the city, and instead opted for a peace treaty with Rome some time later. Porsena would once again sent envoys to the Roman Senate in 507, requesting the restoration of Tarquinius to the throne. The Romans responded by stating that they would never re-admit Tarquinius, and that Porsena should, out of respect for the Romans, cease requesting Tarquinius' readmittance. Porsena agreed to the advice from the Romans, and told Tarquinius elsewhere than Clusium.

War with the Latins (499 - 493)
By 501 thirty Latin cities of the Italian peninsula had joined in a league against Rome, led by Octavius Mamilius, son-in-law of Tarquinius. Titus Lartius was appointed Rome's first dictator, with Spurius Cassius as his magister equitum, to adequately deal with the issue of the Sabines and Latin wars against Rome. Several years passed before the Latins initiated war against the Romans. This time Aulus Postumius was appointed dictator, with Titus Aebutius Elva as his magister equitum, who led the Roman forces against the Latins. Postumius successfully led the Romans into Latin territory, meeting the army of Octavius Mamilius and Tarquinius Superbus near Frascati, at the Battle of Lake Regillus.

Postumius was quick to mobilize his forces for battle, initiating combat before forces from the neighboring tribe of Volsci could arrive at the field of battle. The Roman infantry was led by the dictator Postumius, while Titus Aebutius Elva led his cavalry. Tarquiniuswas accompanied by his eldest and last remaining son, Titus. It was said that the presence of the Tarquinii caused the Romans to fight more passionately than in any previous battle against the Latins.

During the early stages of the battle, Tarquinius was wounded by Postumius, while during a charge by the magister equitum at Mamilius, both were wounded; Aebutius in the arm, and the Latin commander in the chest. Aebutius was forced to withdraw from the field of battle, but continued to direct his forces from a distance. Tarquinius and his army of Roman exiles began to overpower the Republican forces, with the former consul Marcus Valerius Volusus being killed by a spear while engaged in combat with Titus Tarquinius. Postumius brought forth fresh soldiers from his own bodyguard and was able to halt the Tarquinius' advance.

At the same time, Titus Herminius Aquilinus, famous for fighting alongside Horatius at the Sublician bridge, and served as consul in 506 BC, engaged and slew Mamilius, but was killed by javelin while attempting to claim his fallen enemy's spoils. Postumius commanded his cavalry to dismount and attack the Latins on foot, eventually forcing the enemy to retreat. Postumius captured the Latin Camp, and soon Tarquinius and his army retreated from the field of battle, having been decisively defeated. Postumius and his army returned to Rome, where the dictator celebrated a triumph. The Battle of Lake Regillus would serve as a decisive Roman victory, and Tarquinius' final attempt to take back the throne of Rome and end the Roman Republic. Tarquinius later fled to the court of Aristodemus at Cumae, where he remained until his death in 495 BCE.

Plebeian Revolt of 494 (POD)
In the early years of the Roman Republic the patrician classes held an unbalanced among of power over the lower classes, both financially and politically. Many of the plebeian classes, which also included much of Rome's army, were in debt or impoverished. Many people in debt were beaten or imprisoned, after being unable to pay back their debts. During the frequent state of war that Rome had experienced in the first decade of its existence, many soldiers returned home to find their rural property ravaged, and their homes pillaged and burnt. Outrage quickly spread across the city, with violence nearly breaking out in the Roman forum.

Latin horsemen arrived in Rome to announce that a Volscian army had invaded their territories, and Rome was asked for assistance in this conflict. The people refused to enroll as soldiers, and the Senate sent the consul Servilius to break the impasse. Finally the people were convinced to put aside their complaints momentarily in this time of war, so that Rome could work together against its common enemy. Servilius also announced an edict that no Roman citizen should be detained or prevented from serving in the military, and that no soldier would have his goods seized or sold while in service, nor his children or grandchildren arrested. Imprisoned debtors in the city were released and allowed to enroll in the military, gathering a large force for combat. Servillius led this force to meet the Volsci, and defeated them before plundering the town of Suessa Pometia. The Romans also marched against the Sabines, in which Servilius' infantry and a force of Roman cavalry led by Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis defeated the Aurunci.

Following their victory the Roman soldiers returned to the city, expecting the consul to address their complaints fully now, but found that the consul Appius instead ordered the return of debtors to prison, and further penalties. The people called for Servilius to address the Senate, but the patricians were in favor of Appius' approach, and so Servilius was left in no position to intervene in the matter, earning the distrust of both factions as a result. At the same time the Senate also debated who should dedicate a new temple to Mercury, and referred the decision to the popular assembly. Whichever consul was selected would also be chosen for additional duties, including presiding over the markets, establishing a merchants' guild, and exercising the functions of the pontifex maximus. In spite of the senate and the consuls, the people selected senior military officer Marcus Laetorius.

This decision outraged the senate, but they also proved unable to quell the people. Mobs of angry citizens stormed the streets, attacking creditors across the city. Hostilities against the Sabines had continued, and the Senate called for the raising of the city's army levies, but this decree was ignored by the people. Appius blamed Servilius for this failure, and vowed to solve the crisis himself. Appius ordered his lictors to arrest a leading member of the people, but he instead sought to exercise his right to appeal to the people, creating an impasse with the consul and the people.

In March 494 two new consuls were elected; Aulus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus and Titus Veturius Geminus Cicurinus. During this time the people began holding regular secret nightly meetings. When the the consuls received word of these acts they brought the news before the Senate, but the senators were instead outraged at the consuls failure to prevent these meetings in the first place. The Senate advised that the army levies be raised to distract the people from their sedition, but no one answered the consuls' calls for mobilization. Instead a crowd gathered demanding their rights and liberties be restored.

After violence broke out between the guards of the senators and the people, the Senate reconvened to decide a new course of action. Some of the Senate's more extreme elements called for a criminal inquiry, but ultimately three proposals would be considered. The previous consul Appius Claudius, one of the more extreme members, proposed that the people had no fear of the consequences of their behavior because of their right to appeal to the popular assembly, and advocated for the appointment of a dictator so that no appeal could be made. Titus Lartius, also Rome's first dictator several years earlier, advocated for measures to be put in place for the relief of the debt issues, which had caused the crisis in the first place. Another senator named Publius Virginius proposed a middle ground between both proposals, calling for the relief Lartius proposed to be extended only to veterans of the recent war against the Aurunci and the Sabines. Appius' idea of appointing a dictator was also approved, although the senate chose the more moderately tempered Manius Valerius Maximus over Appius himself. Valerius was the brother of Publius Valerius Publica, who had instituted the right to appeal to the people's assembly, and as a result the people did not fear harsh treatment from Valerius.

The threat of war from the Aequi, Sabines, and Volsci, led Valerius to issue an edict similar to Servilius' in order to raise levies. His plan worked and a large army of ten legions was raised. Three legions were assigned to each consul, while Valerius himself took four legions under his command, marching against the Sabines, who proved the greatest threat.

The legions under the command of consul Verginius marched against the Volsci, pursing the enemy to Velitrae, where the enemy was slaughtered. As a result the lands of Velitrae were seized by Rome. The consul Veterius entered Latin territory to intercept the Aequi, who had been raiding the surrounding area. The Aequi fled into the mountains, achieving a superior defensive position. The consul proposed that his forces wait, but his soldiers pressured him to attack. The unexpected attack frightened the defenders, who fled the battle. The Romans were therefore victorious without any loses, and were able to seize the plunder at the Aequian camp. Valerius led his forces against the Sabines, achieving a great victory that at the time was only exceeded by the Battle of Lake Regillus in renown. As a result Valerius would later celebrate a triumph in the city.

When the victorious Roman armies returned to Rome, Valerius sought to finally address the problems that had plagued the people for quite some time. The Senate however refused to address his concerns, and frustrated by their opposition, Valerius refused to remain dictator while they refused to act, resigning the office to much applaud from the people. Hostilities with the Aequi broke out once again, and the Senate ordered Rome's army be marched to meet them. The people were outraged however, and refused to march once again. One leading plebeian Lucius Sicinius Vellutus advocated that the people should secede from Rome and take themselves to the Sacred Mount located just three miles from the city, beyond the river Anio. A large army of former soldiers and plebeians followed this advice, securing a defensive position on the mountain. Several ramparts and trenches were also constructed, to protect against possible retaliation from the Senate.

With a large force gathered consisting of much of Rome's military, the plebeians instead gathered their forces and supplies and marched on the city. The Senate panicked, and mobilized what small force they could among loyal citizens. After a brief skirmish however the plebeians easily entered the city and overpowered the Senate's guards. A peace was negotiated between the plebeian army and former consul Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, who was well liked by the people, ending the rebellion and leading to the creation of changes to the Roman government.

Aftermath of the Plebeian Revolt
A brief famine struck Rome in 492 BCE, as the plebeian farmers who had participated in the revolt had not been able to sow their crops for the following season. To address the shortage the Roman consuls arranged for the import of grain from Etruria, followed by an even greater amount from Sicily the following year. The grain shortage, and the question of how imported grain should be distributed, led to unrest in Rome and conflict with Gaius Marcius Coriolanus, who advocated for the reversal of plebeian reforms.

Ultimately in the political era following the creation of the new Roman government, a number of political reforms would be created which were led by the plebeian classes. Basic laws outlining the powers and rights of the various branches of government would form the foundation of the Roman Republic's laws into the future, and would lead to further equality between the patrician and plebeian classes.

Roman Government Reform of 494
With the Plebeian army now in a position of power over the patrician classes of Rome, a new system of government for the Roman Republic was able to be created that was no too overly bias for any party. Roman leaders saw the need to create a sort of checks and balances, learning from past mistakes, to ensure that no one individual was too powerful, as was the case during the Roman monarchy, and that no one group could dominate the government for their own purposes over the will of the people, such as in the early republic.

Firstly, legislative power of the Roman Republic was divided between two houses to create a bicameral system. The Senate served as the upper house, composed of the already existing patrician classes, while the Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly) and its permanent Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Council) served as the lower house, consisting of mostly plebeian representatives from across Rome's territory, and representatives of the city's plebeian classes. The Tribal Assembly was granted a veto against the Senate, while laws proposed by the Tribal Assembly had to be approved by a majority of the Senate. In the case of a Senate's vote against, if the Plebeian Council voted in favor of the law, it could be made law by the Tribune of the Plebs. The Tribune of the Plebs also held the power to convene and preside over the people's assembly, to summon the senate, to propose legislation, to intervene on the behalf of plebeians in legal matters, and veto the actions of the consuls and other magistrates, thus protecting the interests of the plebeians as a class. The tribunes of the plebs were also designated as sacrosanct, meaning that any assault on their person was prohibited by law.

This lofty series of reforms greatly diminished the powers of the Roman Senate, but established a more equal system between the patricians and plebeians. With no choice but to accept the agreement, the Senate approved the proposed amendment to the Roman government, and many senators who opposed the reform would be exiled, such as Gaius Marcius Coriolanus, who would later defeat the Volsci and lead an attack against the Roman Republic.

Creation of the Twelve Tables
During the early years of the new government, the Senate sent representatives to Greece to observe similar forms of government in operation elsewhere. Similarly a committee within the Comitia Tributa was created to draft proper procedures for the government and clearly define each branch of government's rights and abilities. These laws would become known as the Leges Duodecim Tabularum or Duodecim Tabulae, Law of the Twelve Tables, and would feature input from all forms of government. Drafted primarily by the Plebeians as an extension of their demands following the Plebeian Revolt, the laws featured aspects from Greek forms of government and a few revisions by the Senate. Finally in 490 the laws were finished and passed, with feats of a second secession by the plebeians. The new laws would form the foundation of Roman law, in conjunction with the Mos Maiorum, the way of the elders. These laws were posted publicly, so all Romans could read and know them.

Conflict with Coriolanus
Gaius Marcius Coriolanus was a Roman general who had first come to fame as a young man serving under the consul Postumus Cominius Auruncus during the siege of the Volscian town of Corioli in 493 BCE. While the Romans laid siege to the town, a second Volscian force had arrived from Anitium and attacked the besieging forces. Marcius quickly gathered a small force of Roman soldiers and attacked the soldiers advancing from the town of Corioli. Marcus not only repulsed the attack, but charged after the enemy, entering the town and setting fire to buildings near the town's walls. The remaining enemy force was dispersed, and Marcius received the cognomen Cariolanus for his bravery in battle against the Volsci.

Two years later, during Rome's recovery from the grain shortages that followed the Plebeian Revolt, Coriolanus argued that the shipment of grain received from Sicily should not be distributed until the pro-plebeian reforms were revoked. This proposal heavily angered the plebeians, and even the Senate considered it to be too harsh. The tribunes put Coriolanus on trial, but he refused to attend the day of his trial and was convicted.

After his sentencing Coriolanus went into exile and fled to the Volsci, where he was received kindly by the Volscian leader Attius Tullus Aufidius. Coriolanus and Aufidius convinced the Volsci to break their treaty with Rome and raise an army to invade, attacking Roman towns, colonies, and allies. Coriolanus' army successfully expelled Roman citizens from Circeii, and proceeded to take back a number of formerly Volscian towns from Roman citizens. From there the Volscian army marched on Rome itself and laid siege, camping at the Cliulian trench approximately five miles outside the city. Coriolanus ravaged the countryside around the city, ordering his men to target plebeian properties primarily and spare the patricians'.

The Roman consuls readied the city's defenses, while the plebeian classes called for a peace treaty to be signed. Attempts by ambassadors and priests from Rome to pursue peace with Coriolanus failed, and it was not until he was contacted by his mother Veturia, his wife Volmnia, and his two sons, that he ceased his attack of Rome.

Roman-Volscian War (480s)
Following the withdraw of Coriolanus' forces from Rome peace continued for only a short time. The Volscian army previously operating under the command of Coriolanus returned to Rome, this time joined by the Aequi. Their march to Rome however was stalled however by a dispute that broke out between the two tribes, with the Aequi refusing to recognize Aufidius as their leader. The two tribes eventually engaged in a costly battle, which diminished the strength of both sides.

In 487 BCE the consul Titus Sicinius Sabinus was tasked with ending conflict with the Volsci for good, and was allocated the necessary resources and forces to continue the war against them. Initially the Romans were successful, achieving a few victories against small armies while marching against the Volsci. This continued for some time, until the Volsci and Aequi were both defeated together in 485 BCE. Peace did not last however, and hostilities continued again in 484 BCE. Under the command of consul Lucius Aemilius Mamercus the Romans defeated the Volsci once again, with the Roman cavalry present being used to slaughter a large number of fleeing Volscian infantry.

The Hernici had previously fought against Rome, joining the Volsci in their invasion of Rome in 495 BCE, and again engaging the Romans under the command of Gaius Aquillius Tuscus in 487 BCE. The following year the Hernici entered into a treaty with Rome similar to that of the Latin League, making them cede two thirds of their land to Rome in exchange for joining Rome in a military alliance. This second treaty however caused debate between the Romans and their Latin allies over the distribution of the land acquired from the Hernici, and this conflict eventually led to the trial and execution of three-time consul Spurius Cassius Viscellinus for high treason, despite being the negotiating party responsible for creating the two treaties with the Latins and Hernici.

The alliance between Rome and other Italian city states proved to be successful, as during the fifth century BCE the alliance was able to successfully defeat numerous invasions from the Aequi and the Volsci, both Sabellian-speaking peoples migrating out of the Appenines and into the plains of the Italian Peninsula. Numerous raids and counter-raids were launched into the surrounding area, but overall Rome's alliance managed to hold the tide of migrating peoples and protect its land from invasion.

Conquest of Veii (406 - 396)
The city of Veii had remained one of Rome's greatest rivals for much of its early history. Under Rome's first king Romulus the Romans had battled the Fidenates and the Veientes, again during the reign of Rome's third king Tullus Hostilius during the seventh century BCE, and lastly under the command of Servius Tullius in the sixth century, following the end of earlier treaties between the two powers. Veii sided with Tarquinius Superbus following the overthrowing of the Roman Monarchy, but was defeated at the Battle of Silva Arsia. By this time Veii had become one of the richest cities of the Etruscan League, serving as an important location on the southern end of Etruria, north of Rome and the Latins.

Rome declared war against the city of Veii again in 406 BCE, laying siege to the city for several years. The city's fortified position upon an elevated site made the city hard to attack, and by 401 BCE Rome was growing increasingly tired of continuing the war. Marcus Furius Camillus was placed in command of the Roman army and within short time had stormed Falerii and Capena, two allies of Veii, which he proceeded to loot, and Camillus was granted consular power in 398 BCE. Following the end of Camillus' term Rome suffered severe defeats in 396, and Camillus was named dictator to end the war.

Camillus met both the Falerii and Capena at Napete, where he achieved a decisive victory against the allies of Veii. Finally he was able to march again on the city of Veii itself, where he dug the soft ground below the city walls and infiltrated the city through its sewage system. The Romans were not interested in capitulation terms, but rather total destruction, and proceeded to slaughter the city's male population and enslave its women and children. When Camillus returned to Rome he brought with him an extensive amount of loot, and paraded in celebration for four days.

Initially the plebeians created a plan to populate Veii with half of the Romans, which would have resolved the city's poverty problem, but this plan was opposed by both the patricians and Camillus himself. Camillus however became heavily controversial, not fulfilling his promise to dedicate a tenth of the loot to Delphi for the god Apollo, and it was announced by Roman soothsayers that the gods were very displeased.

In 395 BCE Camillus marched against Falerii, the last surviving enemy of his war, after being made military tribune again. During the siege of the city a local school teacher surrendered most of the city's children to the Romans, which Camillus deemed amoral. Gracious for this act of mercy, Falerii surrendered to the Romans peacefully. Following the conquests of Camillus the remaining states near Rome of Aequi, Volsci, and Capena offered treaties of peace. Rome had increased its territory heavily, distributing some land to needy citizens, and was viewed by the other nearby states to be the most powerful state of the central Italian Peninsula.

War with the Gauls (390)
Around the year 400 BCE the Senones, a Gallic tribe, crossed the Alps and entered the Italian Peninsula. The Senones drove out the Umbrians living in the region and settled on the east coast of Italy, and founded the town later known as Sena Gallica. With their capital established in the north, in 391 BCE the Senones invaded Etruria and besieged Clusium. The leaders of Clusium called for help from Rome in the south to help defend against the invaders, as Rome had recently exerted military influence over Etruria. Rome was weakened by recent wars, and instead sent a group of ambassadors to negotiate peace between the two states.

Negotiations broke down however, and one of the ambassadors, Quintus Fabius, a member of a powerful patrician family, killed one of the Gallic leaders. The Senones sent ambassadors back to Rome, demanding that the Fabians be handed over for their actions. Some Roman priests were sympathetic and agreed that Fabius and the other ambassadors should be handed over, while the large majority of Rome's masses mocked these priests. This response was perceived by the Senones as an insult, and promised to return to Rome with war.

Battle of Allia and Sack of Rome
The Senones withdrew from Clusium and marched peacefully from the city toward Rome, declaring to those they passed that they only intended to harm the Romans and no one else. The Senones were met approximately eighteen kilometers north of the city, at the Battle of Allia. 24,000 Romans soldiers under the command of Quintus Sulpicius marched to meet the Senones, under the command of Brennus and only consisting of about 12,000 warriors. The Romans held their position at Allia, broken into six legions. At the time a legion consisted of 4,200 men, although legions were rarely completely manned. Instead the Roman army more closely resembled a militia, organized in a similar manner to a Greek phalanx battle line, with heavy hoplites representing the city's richer citizens in the center, and extending to flanks with poorer conscripts, who provided poorer arms.

When the Gauls initiated their attack against the Romans, the Roman flanks were quickly routed, leaving the Roman center to be surrounded and slaughtered by Brennus' forces. As a result Rome lost the large majority of its experienced and well armed soldiers in the fighting. The Roman left wing fled to Veii, while the right flank fled back to the city of Rome. Once in the city, Rome's citizens put forth a hastily defense, barricading the Capitoline Hill. The Gauls entered the city and charged against the hill, but suffered heavy casualties.

Roman soldiers in Veii sought to send a message to the Roman senate in order to reinstate Marcus Furius Camillus as dictator and general, and a messenger was tasked with climbing a steep cliff near the city that the Gauls had neglected to guard. The Senate approved the message, but on his return the messenger was followed by the Gauls, who launched a sneak attack onto the hill. The rest of the city of Rome was plundered by the Gauls and almost all of Roma's records were destroyed. An epidemic also ravaged the city after both sides were unable to bury the dead. Finally Brennus and the Romans negotiated an end to the siege, with the Romans agreeing to pay one thousand pounds of gold to the Gauls.

Recovery
Following the sack of Rome at the hands of the the Gauls, the Romans were faced with recovering from the heavy defeat, and tasked with rebuilding the city of Rome. To protect from future attack the Romans constructed the Servian Wall, a defensive system surrounding the city, based on old defenses that Rome was forced to dismantle when under the influence of the Etruscan rulers. The Servian Wall was built using large blocks of tufa, a volcanic rock made from ash and rock fragments ejected during an eruption, which were quarried from the Grotta Oscura quarry near the city of Veii. The wall also incorporated a deep fossa, or ditch, as a means to heighten the wall. Along the northern end of the wall, where the defenses were topographically weaker, an agger, or defensive ramp of earth, was constructed inside along the wall, to thicken the wall and give defenders a base to stand when repelling attack. The walls were also outfitted with defensive weapons, such as catapults.

The defeat of the Romans at Allia also compelled Rome to reform its military organization. The Gauls' slaughter of Rome's main infantry units comprised of patricians and aristocratic citizens led to a new policy in which such elements were not so easily exposed. The Romans ceased using the Greek phalanx, and instead adopted a better and more standardized set of armor and weaponry. The Romans also adopted some tactics from the Gauls, who at the time had more advanced iron-working and close-quarter combat techniques. Specifically, large shields and heavier long sowrds were used by the Gauls, allowing them to interlock shields for greater defense, which the Romans would later adopt into testudo.

Roman-Etruscan War (389 - 386)
Following Rome's defeat against the Gauls, relations with the neighboring Latin tribes quickly deteriorated. The situation regarding the Latins and Hernici was brought before the Rome Senate in 387, but the matter was dropped when news arrived that Etruria was in arms. The Volsci and the Aequi had all raised armies in hope of exploiting this blow to Roman power, gathering at the sanctuary of Voltumna to form a military alliance against Rome. With invasion from the Etruscans imminent and relations with the city's Latin allies deteriorating, Marcus Furius Camillus was appointed dictator. Camillus chose to march against the Volsci first, leaving a small force in the Veientine territory under the command of consular tribune L. Aemilius Mamercinus to protect against any attack from the Etruscans. After two campaigns Camillus had inflicted crushing victories against both the Volsci and the Aequi, and next marched against the Etruscans.

In the course of two campaigns Camillus inflicted crushing victories against the Volsci and the Aequi and was now ready to take on the Etruscans. At the same time an Etruscan army had laid siege to Sutrium, a Roman ally who immediately sent word to Rome for assistance. Camillus marched back to aid Sutrium, but not before the city accepted a conditional surrender allowing its citizens to flee the city. Camillus met up with the fleeing citizens of Sutrium and marched into the city. The gates were closed and Camillus began killing the Etruscans locked inside, who had begun plundering. The Etruscans surrendered to Camillus in large numbers, and Sutrium was taken. Having won three wars for the republic, Camillus returned to Rome in triumph. Etruscan prisoners captured by Camillus were publicly sold, the gold being used to repay Rome's debts following the war with the Gauls.

Camillus continued his campaign against the enemies of Rome in 388 BCE, invading the territory of Tarquinii, capturing the towns of Cortuosa and Contenebra, after minimal fighting. It was believed that the following year Etruria was mobilizing again to combat the Romans, and Camillus was electec consular tribune for 386. First he marched to combat the Volsci, who had invaded the Pomptine territory. At the same time the Etruscans invaded and attacked the border strongholds of Nepete and Sutrium. After defeating the Volsci, Camillus returned and joined a second army raised in Rome under the command of P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola.

When Camillus and Valeirus arrived at Sutrium half the city had fallen to the Etruscans, but the Sutrines had managed to hold off the invaders by putting up a desperate defense in the streets, setting up barricades and other fortifications. With the arrival of the Roman armies the Etruscans were now pinned down within the city and surrounded outside, causing heavy casualties. Camillus then marched to Nepete, which had fallen to the Etruscans previously due to treachery from its citizens. When the city refused to surrender, Camillus took the city by force, and executed all those who had sided with the Etruscans.

Initial Conflict (383 - 381)
Following the wars with the Volsci, Aequi, and Etruscans, the next nation of the Italian Peninsula to combat the Roman Republic was the city of Praeneste, who had emerged as a major city in the region, and rival to Rome. Praeneste was one of the largest nations in the region in terms of territory, but had largely been dominated by Aequi for much of the fifth century. It was not until Aequi's many defeats at the hand of Rome that Praeneste was able to march on Rome themselves.

War began when Rome declared war against the Volsci of the city of Velitrae in 383 BCE. A disease outbreak in Rome that year stalled all plans for war, and no campaign was launched against the Volsci until the following year. At the same time the city of Lanuvium had rebelled against the Romans. At first many of the revolting colonists of Lanuvium sought to sign a peace treaty with the Romans, but was continued to remain popular among the populace, and following successful raids into Roman territory were undertaken any hope of peace was quickly dissipated. News also arrived that the city of Praeneste was susceptible to revolt, and the people of Tusculum, Gabii, and Labici issued complains claiming their territory had been invaded, although Rome did not believe many of these claims.

In 382 BCE the consular tribunes Sp. and L. Papirius marched from Rome to combat Velitrae, and achieved victory against the Veliternian army, which included a large number of Praenestine auxiliaries. The Roman army refrained from assaulting the city itself, fearing that such an attack would prove too costly, and the Romans also desired to keep the colony from destruction. With news of Praeneste's aid in the resistance against Rome, the Roman Republic next declared war against the city of Praeneste.

Peace between Lanuvium and Rome was declared, and Lanuvium joined Rome against Praeneste, as Lanuvium was close to enemy territory and susceptible to raids. In 381 BCE the Volsci and Praenestines joined their forces to launch a joint invasion of Rome, storming the colony of Satricum. The Roman Republic responded by electing M. Furius Camillus as consular tribune, his sixth term in such a position, and selecting L. Furius Medullinus to be his colleague. Camillus and L. Furius marched from Rome with a large army on route to Satricum, where they encountered a much larger force awaiting their attack.

L. Furius prepared the main Roman army for battle, while Camillus formed a strong reserve and awaited the outcome of the battle. When the Romans engaged the Volsci began to retire, pursued by the Roman infantry. The Volsci fled uphill to their camp, where they had positioned several cohorts of reserve forces, who immediately began pushing against the Romans on the hill. When Camillus learned of the routing Roman soldiers he quickly marched his forces into the battle to rally the fleeing soldiers. Camillus' tactics were successful, and the battle was soon won by the Romans. The Roman army then entered Satricum and expelled the enemy forces who had garrisoned within the city.

Annexation of Tusculum (381)
Following his victory against the Volsci, Camillus returned to Rome with a large amount of prisoners taken in the fighting. It was determined that a large number of the prisoners were actually from Tusculum, and in retaliation Rome declared war soon after. Rumors also existed that Tusculum was about to launch a rebellion against Rome, and Camillus and l. Furius marched against the city that year. When Camillus arrived in the city however, he found that the people actually had no intention of rebelling, and as such Camillus told the leading men of the city to go to Rome and plead their case before the Roman Senate. The dictator of Tusculum served as spokesperson for the city, and in 381 BCE traveled to Rome. The Roman Republic granted peace to Tusculum, and not long after the city was granted full citizenship in the Roman Republic.

By the time of the Roman annexation of the city, Tusculum was almost completely surrounded by the Roman Republic, making it a logical step in Roman expansion. The city was of strategic importance to the Romans, as it cut off Tibur and Praeneste from the cities of the Alban Hills, as well as providing new manpower and resources to aid Rome in its war. The city of Tusculum would also become the first Roman municipium, a self governing city comprised of Roman citizens.

Dictatorship of T. Quinctius Cincinnatus (380)
The army of Praeneste had advanced into the district of Gabii and pushed closer to Rome, while in the city the Romans prepared an army. Alarmed by the sudden advance of the Praeneste forces, the Romans appointed T. Quinctius Cincinnatus as Dictator with A. Sempronius Atratinus as his Master of the Horse and assembled the army. The Praenestines withdrew to Allia in response where they set up their camp, hoping to bring back memories of Rome's earlier defeat against the Gauls at that location. At the same time however the Romans recalled victories against the Latins in the region, and sought to achieve a great victory and wipe away memory of the previous battle at Allia. Titus Quinctius ordered A. Sempronius to charge the Praenestine army's center with the Roman cavalry, while he planned to attack the disordered enemy with the Roman infantry. After the first charge the Praenestines were routed, fleeing in panic and abandoning their camp. The Romans pursued the Praenestines until they had come upon the city of Praeneste itself.

Attempts to hold back the Romans failed and the Praenestines retreated behind the walls of their city. The countryside surrounding the city soon fell, with the Romans capturing eight towns subordinate to Praeneste, before marching on Velitrae. After capturing the Volsci city, the Romans returned to Praeneste, which surrendered to their forces. Titus Quinctius returned to Rome in triumph, having defeated both Velitrae and Praeneste. Praeneste was largely pacified after their defeat for some time, although the city would attempt to instigate rebellion among the Latins against Rome in 379 BCE, leading to the outbreak of war again several years later.

Destruction of Satricum (377)
The temporary peace brought upon by Titus Quinctius' successful campaign into Volsci and Praenestine lands soon entered in 377, as hostilities between the Latins and the Romans broke out again in 377 BCE. The Volsci and the Latins united their forces to jointly combat the Romans, rallying their forces at Satricum. Under the command of consular tribunes P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola and L. Aemilius Mamercinus, the Roman army marched from the city to meet them. At first the Latin army was able to hold back the Roman advance, which was plagued by poor weather and the Latins' familiarity with Roman tactics. A Roman cavalry charge would successfully disrupt the ranks of the Latin army, allowing the Roman infantry to follow up the charge with a fresh attack, routing the defending army. The armies of the Latins and Volsci fled back to Satricum, before retreating to Antium, pursed by the Roman army. The Romans lacked the necessary siege equipment to take the city of Antium through siege, but why the Romans surrounded the city a quarrel broke out between the Latin alliance. Unsure of whether to continue the war against the Romans or sue for peace, the Latin forces departed, leaving the Antiates in the city to surrender to the Romans.

In retaliation the Latins returned to Satricum and set fire to the city, nearly destroying the entire settlement. After destroying Satricum, the Latin army next marched on Tusculum. The city was taken largely be surprise, and soon the entire city fell to the Latin invaders, with the exception of the citadel, which held out as the last defense against the Latin army. Under the command of consular tribunes L. Quinctius Cincinnatus and Ser. Sulpicius Rufus, a Roman army marched to the city's relief. The Latins were now caught between the Roman army and the Tusculans within the citadel. The Latins attempted to defend against the Roman attack along the walls, but trapped between the two forces the Latin army was eventually annhilated.