First Century (Hibernia Unanimis)

''The First Century AD, dated between the years 1-100 AD was seen as the height of Classical and Imperial Rome as it increased its hegemony over the Mediterranean and beyond, most notably seen in its conquest of Britannia and Dacia. In Persia and in East Asia, Parthia and Han China strengthened their hegemony over their regions, though not to the degree of the Romans. The nascent Roman Empire proved to be a remarkably successful government, at least under the guidance of notable emperors such as Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius, building new cities and expanding heavily across Europe, much to the dismay of the local Celts or Germanic people, who defeated the Romans at Colchester and Teutoburg Forest, respectively.''

''This century also saw several important technological advances such as the invention of the codex (the modern form of the book), replacing the scroll in the Roman Empire, and the water-powered bellows in Han China. The First Century was also notable for the foundation of Christianity in Roman Judea.''

Timeline Background
Before the Point of Divergence of Hibernia Unanimis, a certain understanding of First Century Ireland and indeed, the whole Roman Empire is important. In the mid-First Century, Rome was at its height under the Julio-Claudian Dynasty and later the Flavian Dynasty. Far-flung lands were rapidly added to the empire, with the inhabitants of them easily subjugated using advanced Roman military technology and tactics. Locals, after being conquered were usually quickly assimilated, due to the rapid expansion of Roman infrastructure and luxuries to conquered regions--who would want to live in a hut in the woods at the mercy of the elements when you could move to a Roman city or town and enjoy sewers, walls, stable government, and far-flung luxuries? These factors, especially when good rulership was to be had, allowed Rome to quickly expand and hold new lands that would remain part of the Empire for many years.



Britannia was one of these provinces that was recently annexed by Rome. In the mid-First Century, long after the establishment of several client states in the southeast during a prior expedition during 55-54 BC, Claudius landed his forces in OTL Kent in 43. Several major river battles were fought and most of the wealthy tribes of southeastern Britain were relatively easily conquered, with the Romans marching into the Cantuvellaunian capital at Camulodunum (Colchester) by the end of the year.

Reign of Domitian (81 - 96)
In 81 the Roman emperor Titus fell ill with fever, and was brought to a farm house, reportedly the same that his father had been brought to. Just before Titus had been present for the grand inaugural games at the Flavian Amphitheatre, before departing for the Sabine territories. Upon his death from fever, Titus' last words allegedly were. "I have made but one mistake." After only two years of rule after the death of his father Vespasian, Titus was dead. He was succeeded by his younger brother, known as Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify Titus. As emperor, Domitian favored a government of enlightened absolutism, centered around a divine monarch, while rendering the Senate's powers obsolete. As such the center of government was moved to the imperial court. Domitian also believed that the emperor should serve as a moral and cultural authority, serving to guide all Roman citizens in every aspect of their life.

Public Policy
Ambitious economic, military, and cultural projects were begun almost immediately by Domitian, who sought to restore the empire to the grandeur experienced under Augustus. Domitian also ruled meticulously, with all edicts governing even the smallest details of law, taxes, and public morals being heavily scrutinized and highly enforced. Domitian is said to have greatly increased the efficiency of the bureaucracy, with his suspicious nature helping to maintain low corruption among the provincial governors of the empire. Domitian expelled members of the senate who he felt were unworthy, without any significant pretense, and also favored his own family members for senatorial positions and other government functions. Above all, however, Domitian favored loyalty, and removed all statesmen who seemed to disagree with his policies. Domitian would spend much of his reign away from the city of Rome, more than any emperor since Tiberius. As such the seat of government in the empire was often outside the city, further dampening the powers of the senate. Alba and Circeo were frequent places for the emperor's court, at least before the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill. Domitian also toured the European provinces of the empire frequently, spending at least three years of his reign in Illyricum and Germania, as well as conducting military campaigns on the edge of the empire's borders.

Domitian's micromanagement of Roman government was no where as evident as in his financial policy. Domitian first revalued the Roman currency dramatically, by increasing the silver purity of the denarius from ninety percent to ninety-eight percent, with its weight increasing from 2.87 grams to 3.26 grams. This continued until a financial crisis in 85, causing the devaluation of the silver purity to 93.5%, and a weight of 3.04 grams. The level of purity that remained was higher than those that both Vespasian and Titus had maintained. Coupled with a rigorous taxation system, this purity was maintained for the next eleven years. An estimated 1.2 billion sestertii was raised annually by Domitian, with approximately one third of this income being used to maintain the Roman army. Domitian also spent highly to improve and reconstruct the city of Rome, which had been ravaged by the Great Fire of 64, the civil war of 69, and the fire in 79.

Domitian planned an extensive project that was to be the center of an empire-wide cultural renaissance. Dozens of structures were erected or repaired, second only to the renovations of Augustus, including an odeon, a stadium, and Domitian's Flavian Palace. The Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill was restored, with a gilded roof installed, while the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Flavian Amphitheatre were renovated or completed. Approximately 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives throughout Domitian's reign, to appease the people of Rome. Public banquets were also reinstated, which had been heavily reduced since the reign of Nero. Domitian invested heavily in entertainment and games, founding the Capitoline Games in 86, serving as a quadrennial contest of athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music, and acting. Competitors for these games were brought to Rome from across the empire, serving in innovative naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiatorial fights. Under Domitian the Gold and Purple factions were also added to the chariot races, to race against the existing White, Red, Green, and Blue factions.

As a strong proponent in the traditional Roman religion, Domitian saw that its customs and morals were strictly observed. Domitian emphasized connections to the deity Jupiter, in order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule. This culminated in an impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, as well as a small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator constructed near his house. This was later replaced by an expansive temple dedicated to Jupiter Custos. Domitian zealously worshiped Minerva, keeping a personal shrine to the goddess in his bedroom, minting coins in her likeness, and dedicating a legion in her honor.

Under Domitian the practice of the imperial cult was renewed, after falling somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Under Domitian his brother Titus, followed later by his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia, were deified. A dynastic mausoleum was constructed on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal, helping to foster worship of the imperial family. The Templum Divorum, Templum Fortuna Redux, and the Arch of Titus were all ordered or completed under Domitian, to further memorialize the military accomplishments of the Flavian dynasty.

Domitian nominated himself perpetual censor in 85 AD, to further control the religious morals and customs of the empire's citizens. This task was carefully carried out, and under Domitian as censor the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile, was renewed. An equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back was expelled by Domitian, as was a former quaestor who acted and danced. Public officials caught taking bribes were removed completely, and all bits of legislation were scrutinized if a conflict of interest was suspected. Libellous writings, especially those directed at himself, were met with exile or death. Actors were monitored, as their acting could create an opportunity for satire at the government's expense. Mimes were also forbade from appearing in public on stage.

In 87 AD it was discovered that the Vestal Virgins had broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity, and considering that the Vestal Virgins were regarded as daughters of the community, Domitian regarded this act as incest. Those found guilty were sentenced to death, by a manner of their choosing, or by the traditional manor of being buried alive. Domitian tolerated the practice of foreign religions, as long as they did not interfere with the function of government and public order, or as long as they could be assimilated into Roman polytheistic beliefs. In particular the worship of the Egyptian gods flourished, with Serapis and Isis being identified with Jupiter and Minerva, respectively.

Warfare in Dacia and Germania
Domitian was largely against expansionist warfare, with his few military conquests being largely defensive in nature. Under Domitian a vast network of roads, forts, watchtowers, and other defenses, was constructed along the Rhine river, known as the Limes Germanicus. Like all walks of Roman government, the military was also heavily administrated by Domitian, even though his military competence was notably sub par. Domitian celebrated several triumphs, although these were largely for propaganda purposes rather than for actual military achievement. Domitian remained popular among his soldiers, however, spending about three years of his reign on military campaigns, more than any other emperor since Augustus. Army pay was raised by one third, leaving the loyalty of the common soldier unquestioned, even if the army command disagreed with his tactics.

In 82 AD Domitian began planning for his first military action, hoping to immediately obtain military glory. While in Gaul he ordered a census to be taken, before suddenly ordering a surprise attack on the Chatti. The Legio I Minervia was raised by Domitian for this purpose, which would construct some seventy-five kilometers of roads through enemy territory to find and destroy Chatti settlements. Domitian's campaign against the Chatti was successful, and in late 83 AD he returned to Rome to celebrate an elaborate triumph, bestowing upon himself the title of Germanicus. Despite his victory, contemporary historians and strategies, including the author Tacitus, called these campaigns "uncalled for" and the celebration a "mock triumph".

One of the greatest threats to the empire at this time was from across the northern border of Illyricum, where Suebi, Sarmatians, and Dacians frequently harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river. In 84 AD the Dacian king Decebalus crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, where he managed to kill the Roman governor Oppius Sabinus, as well as cause havoc across the province. One legion, possibly the Legio V Alaudae was also heavily depleted. In response Domitian raised a large force commanded by praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus and drove back the Dacians, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate a second triumph.

Moesia was reorganized as a province into Moesia Inferior and Moesia Superior, while a future attack into Dacia from there was planned. To replace Roman forces lost during the Dacian attack, and to strengthen Rome's border in this region, the Legio IV Flavia was raised from Dalmatia, and was moved along with the I and II Adiutrix to Moesia. The region of Sirmium was also attacked to Moesia Superior, to create a single command against the Dacians during an attack. By 86 AD the peace had ended, and Fuscus launched an invasion across the Danube. Near Tapae, the Romans were ambushed by the Dacians, who managed to kill Fuscus and rout his forces, annihilating the Legio V Alaudae.

Domitian returned to Dacia with an army under Tettius Julianus, but achieved varied success. In 88 AD the Romans defeated Decebalus at the site where Fuscus had been killed, but internal problems soon preventing the Romans from marching on the Dacian capital at Sarmizegetusa. A revolt in Germania hindered Domitian's ability to fight back, with the Iazyges, Marcomanni and Quadi all refusing to provide soldiers to the emperor. Domitian left for Germania, but was forced to return to Pannonia and respond to a Dacian advance. The Dacian king Decebalus' attempts at peace were finally answered, and under the terms of the ensuing treaty Rome received its prisoners of war and recognized Decebalus as a client king, while Rome was forced to pay a subsidy of eight million sesterces to Dacia, and provide Roman engineers to build defenses in the region. This technology would inadvertently help the Dacians prepare for future attacks, with the title of client king being in name only.

Governor Lucius Antonius Saturninus of Germania Superior, and his two legions at Mainz; Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, had revolted in 89 AD, with the aid of the Germanic Chatti tribe. The Saturnine Revolt remained confined to Saturninus' province, and soon other governors in neighboring provinces marched against him. Lappius Maximus, governor of Germania Inferior, marched into Saturninus' territory, supported by Titus Flavius Norbanus, procurator of Rhaetia, Marcus Ulpius Traianus from Spain, and Domitian, in command of the Praetorian Guard. The Chatti were unable to cross the Rhine in time to aid Saturninus, and after twenty-four days the revolt was crushed, its leaders punished in Mainz. The legions who had aided Saturninus were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who fought against the uprising were highly rewarded.

Governorship of the province of Syria was granted to Lappius Maximus in 95 AD, as well as priesthood. The prefecture of Egypt was given to Titus Flavius Norbanus, who was prefect of the Praetorian guard by 94 AD, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague. The year following the revolt Domitian shared the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who perhaps played a part in uncovering the conspiracy. Nerva is also noted as being a highly adaptable diplomat, and his consulship may have been to emphasize the stability and status quo of Domitian's reign.

Reign of Trajan
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