Buddhism in Alaska (Russian America)

Buddhism ☀Russian: буддизм) is the third largest religion in Alaska making up approximately 10% of the population. Until the 1950's Tibetan Lamanism was the prominent school of Buddhism in the country. Unique to Alaska,  New World Buddhism has developed an equally visible presence. The Chan school is also a reality in Chinese Alaskan enclaves. Geographically Buddhists are distributed throughout Alaska the largest concentrations are in Validkakady and Ross.

History
See History of Alaskan Buddhism 

The history of Alaskan Buddhism spans almost two centuries, becoming diverse from the diversity of Buddhist immigrants to Alaska. Buddhism has been part of all of Alaska's history and has made a permanent impression on general Alaskan culture. Alaska stands out as the most Buddhist country in the western hemisphere.

Early History
Alaskan Buddhism traces its origins to Kalmyk soldiers serving the Imperial Army. during the Russo-Spanish war. On one such occasion before battle with the Spanish the Kalmyk built a steel marker and meditated for balance in battle. According to Kalmyk legend this handed the Russians victory for that day. After the war many of the Kalmyk choose to stay in the newly taken Sonora while some reportedly returned to Eurasia to bring back their families. Originally using their new homes as pasture land in Yurts the Kalmyk settled, clustering around a temple by 1845. At first many Kalmyk clergy were reluctant to leave because of the unreachable distance from their Tibetan spiritual homelands. Teacher and Bodhisattva Sants Nemaev differed from his contemporaries believing the idea of enlightenment had not just the ability but a duty to be spread far traditional Buddhist holy places .Teacher Nemaev became the first spiritual leader of the Russian Kalmyk, building the first Alaskan Buddhist monastery. Namev's main teachings emphasized generosity, scholasticism and family kinship as vehicles important to successful meditation.

Traditionally students to Kalmyk priesthood would have traveled to Tibet for their training but as this became impossible new spiritual grounds were established in Sonora. Farther out into the west locations in Oregon would become Kalmyk locations of meditation where students would spent part of the year in relative solitude to become closer to enlightenment. Among many Lamanists this custom continues to the present day.

The Gold Rush brought new waves of Buddhist affiliated Chinese men, unlike the Kalmyk they came with the intention to make gold fortunes and leave. After the rush abated some discovering the Kalmyk merged into their community intermarrying with them. Others took to the coastal English and Russian cities to start fraternities and enterprise. Much later Cantonese and Han women would arrive giving the Chinese permanence. Young Chan monks took interest in the expanding Alaskan colony and arrived by the 1860's. Manchurians, Buryats, Turvans and Oriats followed suit in immigrating to Alaska. Fraternal Societies were the foundation for Chan beliefs in Alaska.

Early 20th century
While the majority of Russian Alaskans were contemptuous or outright hostile to the Asian Alaskan immigrants, there were exceptions. A small fraction of Russian families fresh to Alaska converted to Buddhism, but adding their own interpretations becoming the foundations of New World Buddhism. Russian Buddhist scholar Fyodor Stcherbatsky took personal interest in this phenomenon and traveled to Alaska at the turn of the century. Many western Scholars came to see the Buddhists in Sonora. New World Buddhism would eventually add elements to make the religion more applicable for former Christians.By the turn of the 20th century there were more than 200 temples and dozens of monasteries throughout Alaska.

The first quarter of the 20st century saw Buddhists unite nation wide in several organized sects. Prior to the 1910's Buddhists organized exclusively on a local level. These groups existed to standardize theology for their sects, promote Buddhist schools and also build strong ties for laymen that were spread throughout Alaska.

The Russo-Japanese War attracted suspicion from colonial imperial authorities for all Alaskan Buddhists. Colonial officials enacted many discriminatory laws limiting their movement, rituals, and night curfews for alleged involvement in "Japanese Sabotage". This caused some Alaskan Buddhists to convert to Orthodoxy in an attempt to evade harassment from authorities. Discrimination and the forcible expansion of the Russian Empire and East Asia created a short boom of additional immigration in the first decade of the 20th century. Abroad many second and third generation Alaskan Buddhists saw Asia for the first time in their lives fighting in Manchuria for the empire. Bringing home many artifacts, texts and some sages the years before the Alaskan wars was a time of spiritual renewal for Buddhists that otherwise been very far away from the roots of their faith. Lamanists went to great lengths to bring ritual into their faith. Many Alaskans, particularly those from Somona traveled on pilgrimage to holy sights in Tibet and Nepal. Bringing back wi them their own interpretations of their doctrine.

The Alaskan Wars
The outbreak of civil war in the Russian Empire ruptured fledgling Buddhist groups on political lines. Early on Buddhist clergy showed reluctance to take any sides but pockets supported white, blue and red factions. Such decisions were typically based one's local political environment and the best way for a noticeable and estranged minorities to avoid being targeted by majority white Christian populations or communist vanguards. In 1922 communists in New Irkutsk and the far north issues edicts forcing Buddhists to renounce their faith or face expulsion. Most able bodied men were drafted into Bolshevik armies. 5,000 civilian men, women, and children were executed by the Alaskan Socialist Republic for charges of espionage for the New Archangel government. At least fifty temples were destroyed between 1920 and 1925. Hundreds were sent to labor camps for reeducation throughout the 1930's, some of these prisoners were imported from the Soviet Union.

Old World destruction of Buddhist culture led to massive Buddhist white emigres, perhaps as many of 100,000 by 1930. Many came willing to fight for the Alaskan National Republic and English Colombia but faced suspicion from both. A.N.R fighters believed that such foreign people could be infiltrated with red agents and often barred them from jobs and military service. Colombia closed their border to the emigres, and sectioned off existing Buddhist communities from mainstream life. The Doug dominated Columbia classified all those practicing Eastern Cults and of oriental origin as enemies of the state.

Fortunately The Alaskan Democratic Republic that replaced the A.N.R took a more forgiving position of Buddhists, even while still discriminating on basis of origin the A.D.R saw the need to in cooperate minorities for the sake of unity. Buddhists were brought back into public life to some extent and were permitted entrance into military service and some government jobs. For this reason Sitka still hosts some of the largest Buddhist minorities by percentage in Alaska today.

Buddhist Alaskans found their Alaskan identity in supporting the unification of all of Russian America. In the 1930's several Buddhist Monks become well known in the general mainstream for their calls of unity. Also an middle class of Russian speaking Buddhist Entrepreneurs, Educators, Doctors and Lawyers became better known in the coastal cities. Modern Schools, businesses and clinics became common. While this by itself strengthened the economic power of Buddhists many Buddhists converted to Orthodoxy in order to further assimilate into the Alaskan identity.

In Independent Alaska
The reunification of Alaska in 1942 led to official recognition of Buddhists to practice their faith everywhere in 1944 by the state. The rise of university education for the next twenty years piked more interest in Buddhism by the general Alaskan population. From the early 50's New World Buddhism became popular in Alaskan Youth as it was molded by students at public universities. Elements such as Buddha idols, and prayer flags became mainstream elements of pop culture. Buddhism benefited in the 1960's by anti discrimination laws in work place and education enacted by the Kardash administration. Monasteries in this period were interested in bringing teachers and major saintly figures from the Soviet Union to liberate them from State Atheism.

The 60's and 70's saw Buddhists split on racial lines segments of Asian Alaskans switched out as many whites joined existing groups and made new ones. Asian Buddhists that remained increasingly united with each other to preserve their heritage. White Buddhists were generally more interested in meditation and combining certain aspects with New Age Spirituality. Older and Asiatic laymen became conservative the young became more impassioned with their beliefs. Certain organizations tilted towards recent immigrants while others catered to students and unconventional philosophers. One central issue that threatened to split the Buddhist community was the status of women, historically women in Buddhism could not achieve Buddhahold in the female form. Within organizations some students and nuns demanded that doctrine be modified so that both genders might be recognized as being equally able to achieve Buddhahold, and to renounce the concept that femininity was a result of bad karma. In 1974 The Enlightenment Church decreed women and men were fundamentally equal both in material and spiritual matters. Alienating the Church from other Buddhists. Hundreds of young pupils were expelled from other established organizations when demands for similar changes came to a head.

New Developments
By 1985 problems threatened to unravel the entire Buddhist community, a sizable but fragile minority at this point. In Vladikakaday a conference between the the largest organizations and monasteries tried to resolve the differences in practices and doctrine with limited success. Afterwards open division subsided but participation and membership in institutions slumped. While still an important cornerstone toward Asian Alaskans, Buddhism was no longer a function for Asians alone.

The dissolution of the Soviet Union brought the most recent surge in Buddhist from Eurasia, of both laymen and practitioners. Many people from Buryatia, Mongolia, Kalmakya and other nations had freedom of movement for the first time since the founding of the USSR. Arriving to Alaska the 90's immigrants arguably brought Alaskan Buddhism closer back to that of Mahayana Buddhism in Asia. The immigration has spurred the construction of several new projects. Such as the Tseveer Gegeerel monastery recently finished in 2011.

The first fifteen years of the 21st century continues to see the rise of a spiritually and ethnically diverse movement but still has unity in its impact on all of Alaskan society.

Variants
Within Alaskan Buddhism is great diversity relating to practice, teachings and organization. Despite these differences the majority of laymen from all of the major schools have acknowledged each other as fellow Buddhists since the late 1980's. Regardless of their differences all of Alaska's variants agree with the four noble truths and acknowledge meditation being a vehicle to enlightenment.

Lamaism
A school Based out of Tibet, Lamaism has historically been the primary faith of the Mongol, Buryat, Manchurian and other Siberian-Mongolic Alaskans. In contrast to Lamaism in Asia Lamaism in Alaska has begun to use Mongol as well as Tibetan as holy languages. Due to early Kalmyk inroads into Alaska a certain portion of Native Americans are also affiliated with Lamaism. While other schools have emerged in recent years the Geluge school was traditionally the prominent Lamanist School and still holds prominence. Lamanists in Alaska have their own spiritual head independent from the spiritual head of the Tibet. However Lamanists in Alaska still give official acknowledgment to the Tibetan Dali Lama as the reincarnation of the Bodhisattva of compassion but not as a political leader. Recently with the rise of globalization the Alaskan Lamanists are working on forging closer spiritual ties with Tibet to enrich study and debate in Alaska.

Chan and Zen
Chan and Zen are the most prominent variant of Buddhism for Chinese and Japanese Alaskans respectively. Until present times this kind of Buddhism was rarely seen outside of ethnic neighborhoods in coastal Alaskan cities. While previously exclusive to ethnicity in Alaska both Chan and Zen has been attracting interest from Russian Alaskans since the 1960's In beliefs both Chan and Zen prescribe meditation and enlightenment, both are famous for their riddles, some of which have become debated questions at public Alaskan universities. In recent years half Japanese half Russian Zen Priest Andrei Hashimoto has become a world renowned teacher for his instance on finding peace through extreme concentration and awareness. Cultural elements of Chan and Zen are found in Alaskan Tea and Karate.

New World Buddhism
New World Buddhism is a unique result of cultural fusing and characterizes many beliefs and ideas native to Alaska. Arising from the 19th century writings of European, Asians and native Americans that met each other in Alaska. New World Buddhism emphasizes the western hemisphere. New World Buddhists believe there is innocence in the Americas because it is more pristine and untarnished, and was cared for by natives prior to colonization. As a result New World Buddhists believe nature must be kept as pure as possible and lean toward environmentalism. Teachings prescribe the merging between human and the wild as a facilitator for the reduction of suffering. Rivers and trees are particularly sacred in accomplishing personal peace. In contrast to other sects New World Buddhists are not as interested in elaborate temples but favor open spaces where laymen can reach consciousness. New World architecture tends to be minimalist and seeks to match any sacred structures with the surrounding environment. This is the case with Little Step meditation center in Oregon which is built in stream to existing river flow. New World Buddhism has been classified as "westernized" by Buddhist and secular intellectuals because of its public nature encouraging congregations of followers and preaching like Christianity. The prominent Enlightenment Church has a looser form of the Orthodox style organization without a patriarch. Controversially some major priests have suggested the Buddha hood of Jesus Christ. However most major New World Buddhist organizations reject this or do not make a position on the issue

Enlightenment Church,
The Enlightenment Church is the largest organization supporting New World Buddhism thought and belief. Founded in 1955, the church claims to have 120,000 members in Alaska and 150,000 total world wide. Beginning as a youth movement the Enlightenment Church opposed hierarchy in principal but has sense developed central organization to maintain cohesion. The Enlightenment Church is currently active in 30 countries and is present in every other country in North America.

Assembly of the Eastern Lama
The Assembly of the Lama, formally known as Yellow Hat Dharama is the central organization for Lamnists in Alaska. Founded in 1885 as a linking of Kalmyk and other immigrant communities. Centered around the "Eastern Lama", or the lama east of Tibet. Traditionally until the turn of the century most Mongol, Buryat and Kalmyak newborns were registered with the Assembly. In times of domestic crisis the Assembly takes part in disaster relief for all Alaskans. The Assembly holds a chain of schools, monasteries, temples, libraries a university and many charities. With 100,000 active members and 400,000 non active members the Assembly has been one of the most visible images of Buddhist and Asian Alaskans to general mainstream. The Eastern Lama, simply called Lama Nasu is one of the most influential of Asian Alaskans today appearing regularly by the televised media to give the "Buddhist" or mistakenly the "Asiatic" view on major events.

Gusku Society
Named after "Gusku" an old Pomo deity, the word "society" refers to loose organization of holy men among many native American tribes in Southern Alaska, The Gusku society emerged after early contact between natives and Kalmyk people. In recent years the Gusku Society has become more of a functioning organization among native elders, adapting certain Buddhist beliefs to their existing religion. From at least 1900 many of the Pomo have identified Gusku as being a god that had attained enlightenment. Old precolonial rites are still practiced under the guise of Buddhism. Almost all of the members are native Americans with the exception of a few Kalmyks.

University of Nemev
Founded in 1975 the University of Nemev is a private non for profit university in Ross,Sonoma. The largest accredited Buddhist institution of higher learning in Alaska. Formed out of a desire to facilitate a richer traditional Buddhist community and to equip that community for the modern economy. The University of Nemev has developed a reputation with non Buddhists for having a strong medical school and technology Largest programs programs include Computer Science, Buddhist Theology, Medicine, Eurasian History, and Northeast Asian languages. The University of Nemev is home to the largest library of eastern literature and history in the Americas. Today the university is considered to be the most prestigious vehicle into entering the Buddhist Clergy. 10,000 students strong, 15% of the student body are international students. Attached to the University is a monastery hosting several hundred monks. The University is named out of Teacher Nemev was one of the first Buddhists to come to Alaska during colonial times.

Demography
As of 2007 federal Alaskan Census 9.7% of the Alaskan people (5,456,864) claimed to profess affiliation to Buddhism. Of these 63% stated they were of "Asian origin", 30% stated they were of "white" origin, 4% of "Native American" origin and 3% stated "other". A solid majority Buddhist Alaskans (69%) had at least a bachelors or equivalent college degree.

According to a study by the Kuzkin think tank Buddhists were solid evergreen supporters until the 1960's on account of anticommunism. Since the election of Vasily Kardash Buddhists have gradually leaned towards the movement for Peace and Freedom.