Czechoslovakia (WFAC)

Czechoslovakia (Czech: Československo, Slovak: Česko-Slovensko), officially the Czecho-Slovak Federative Republic (Czech: Česko-Slovenská federativní republika, Slovak: Česká-Slovenská federatívna republika, ČSFR) is a federal parliamentary republic in central Europe consisting of two constituent states, which retain limited sovereignty. Its capital and largest city is Prague, while the second largest city is Bratislava, which is also the capital of the Slovak Republic. Czechoslovakia covers an area of 127,900 sq km and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. The country is bordered by Germany to the north-west and west, Austria to the south-west, Hungary to the south, Poland to the north and Ukraine to the west. Czechoslovakia is a member state of the European Union, Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the OECD and the WTO, among others. The official languages are Czech and Slovak, both members of the Slavic language family.

The Czech state, formerly known as Bohemia (Čechy), was formed in the late 9th century as Duchy of Bohemia, at that time under the dominance of the powerful Great Moravian Empire. After the 10th century the territory of Slovakia was gradually integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary, which itself became part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Habsburg Empire. After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power was transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslids. In 1004, the duchy was formally recognized as a part of the Holy Roman Empire, rising to the status of Kingdom of Bohemia in 1212. During the rule of the Přemyslids and their successors, the Luxembourgs, Bohemia expanded in size until reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century.

Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Kingdom of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy as one of its three principal parts, alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Bohemian Revolt (1618–20) against the catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years' War, after which the monarchy consolidated its rule, re-imposed Catholicism, and adopted a policy of Germanization. With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Bohemian kingdom became part of the Austrian Empire. In the 19th century the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia.

Czechoslovakia was formed in 1918 following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I, and comprised the historical Czech regions of Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia, as well as Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. With the Czech lands having been the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and the core of the new republic, it was one of the most industrialized countries in the interwar era. After 1933, Czechoslovakia remained the only democracy in central Europe.

In October 1938, World War II started with the invasions and annexations of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany, Hungary and Poland. A Czechoslovak government-in-exile was established in Paris and later in London, while Czechoslovak military units that had escaped the occupation fought under their own commanders as part of Allied forces in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. More than six hundred thousand Czechoslovak citizens died in the war.

By 1945, the country was liberated by the United States (the Czech Lands) and the Soviet Union (Slovakia). Czechoslovakia's former democratic constitution was restored and the 1946 elections resulted in a majority for the former democratic political parties, but due to Soviet pressure, the popularity of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and some disillusionment with the West for not having intervened strongly enough in 1938 they had to accept a Declaration of Neutrality in 1947, in which they agreed that the Czechoslovak Republic would become permanently neutral. As a result, Czechoslovakia lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union and became an epicenter for spying activities.

Due to economic support from both the U.S. Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program, ERP) and the Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty of Friendship from 1948, the country enjoyed prolonged economic recovery and growth beginning in the early 1950s. Slovak aspirations for greater autonomy played an important role in the political environment during the 1960s and 1970s. The Slovaks, having never been completely satisfied as the Czechs with the nation created in 1918 because they felt dominated by the numerically superior Czech nationals, would with the election of the Slovak Social Democrat Alexander Dubček as Prime Minister. His reform movement resulted in the 1974 constitutional amendments, which redefined Czechoslovakia as a federation of two equal states and nations, the Czech nation and the Slovak nation, and increased the responsibilities of the constituent republics.

Today, Czechoslovakia is a republic with advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UN ranks the country 14th in the inequality-adjusted human development. Czechoslovakia also ranks as the eleventh-most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance and infant mortality. It is a pluralist parliamentary representative democracy with membership in the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, and the Council of Europe.

Origins
The creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918 was the culmination of a struggle for ethnic identity and self-determination that had simmered within the multi-national empire ruled by the Austrian Habsburg family in the 19th century. The Czechs had lived primarily in Bohemia since the 6th century, and German immigrants had settled the Bohemian periphery since the 13th century. After 1526, Bohemia came under the control of the House of Habsburg as their scions first became the elected rulers of Bohemia, then the hereditary rulers of the country. Following the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, the Kingdom of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg monarchy as one of its three principal parts, alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. With the rise of nationalist political and cultural movements in the Czech lands (the Czech National Revival) and the Slovak lands (the Slovak National Revival instigated by Ľudovít Štúr), mounting ethnic tensions combined with repressive religious and ethnic policies (such as the forced Magyarization of Slovaks) pushed the cohesion of the multi-national Austro-Hungarian Empire ruled by the Habsburgs to the breaking point

The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, when philologists and educators, influenced by Romanticism, promoted the Czech language and pride in the Czech people. Nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century. Taking advantage of the opportunities for limited participation in political life available under the Austrian rule, Czech leaders such as historian František Palacký (1798–1876) founded many patriotic, self-help organizations which provided a chance for many of their compatriots to participate in communal life prior to independence. Palacký supported Austroslavism and worked for a reorganized and federal Austrian Empire, which would protect the Slavic speaking peoples of Central European against Russian and German threats.

Although the Czechs and Slovaks speak languages that are very similar, the political and social situation of the Czech and Slovak peoples was very different at the end of the 19th century. The reason for this was the because of the differing attitude and position of their overlords – the Austrians in Bohemia and Moravia, and the Hungarians in Slovakia – within Austria-Hungary. Bohemia was the most industrialized part of Austria and Slovakia was an undeveloped agrarian region of Hungary. Furthermore, the Hungarians were far more determined to assimilate the Slovaks than the Austrians were to assimilate the Czechs. Nevertheless, the two regions united and created a new nation.

An advocate of democratic reform and Czech autonomy within Austria-Hungary, Masaryk was elected twice to Reichsrat (Austrian Parliament), the first time being from 1891 to 1893 in the Young Czech Party and again from 1907 to 1914 in the Czech Realist Party, which he founded in 1889 with Karel Kramář and Josef Kaizl.

In 1916, during World War I, Tomáš Masaryk created the Czechoslovak National Council together with Edvard Beneš and Milan Štefánik (a Slovak astronomer and war hero). Masaryk in the United States, Štefánik in France, and Beneš in France and Britain worked tirelessly to secure Allied recognition. More than 90,000 Czech and Slovak volunteers formed the Czechoslovak Legions in Russia, France and Italy, where they fought against the Central Powers and later with White Russian forces against Bolshevik troops. At times they controlled much of the Trans-Siberian railway, and they were indirectly involved in the shooting of the Russian tsar and his family in 1918. Their goal was to win the support of the Allies for the independence of Czechoslovakia. They succeeded on all counts. When secret talks between the Allies and Austrian emperor Charles I (r. 1916–18) collapsed, the Allies recognized, in the summer of 1918, the Czechoslovak National Council would be the kernel of the future Czechoslovak government.

The First Republic (1918–1938)
The independence of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed on October 28, 1918, by the Czechoslovak National Council in Prague. Several ethnic groups and territories with different historical, political, and economic traditions had to be blended into a new state structure. The origin of the First Republic lies in Point 10 of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points: "The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development."

The establishment of the Constitution of 1920 installed a parliamentary system and representative democracy with relatively few constituents for each representative. This allowed a great variety of political parties to emerge, with no clear front runner or leading political entity.

Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk was elected the country's first president in the 1920 election and his guidance helped to hold the country together. He was re-elected in 1925 and 1929, serving as President until December 14, 1935 when he resigned due to poor health. He was succeeded by Edvard Beneš. A coalition of five Czechoslovak parties (Agrarian Party, National Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party, National Socialist Party and the People's Party), which became known as the "Pětka" (The Five), constituted the backbone of the government and maintained stability. Prime Minister Antonín Švehla led the Pětka for most of the 1920s and designed a pattern of coalition politics that survived until 1938. Of all the new states established in central Europe after 1918, only Czechoslovakia preserved a democratic government until the war broke out.

The new country was a multi-ethnic state. The population consisted of Czechs (51%), Slovaks (16%), Germans (22%), Hungarians (5%) and Rusyns (4%). National minorities were assured special protection; in districts where they constituted 20% of the population, members of minority groups were granted full freedom to use their language in everyday life, in schools, and in matters dealing with authorities. The state proclaimed the official ideology that there are no Czechs and Slovaks, but only one nation of Czechoslovaks (see Czechoslovakism). Many of the Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians and Poles and some Slovaks, felt oppressed because the political elite did not generally allow political autonomy for minority ethnic groups. Despite this, German parties began participating in the government in the beginning of 1926. Hungarian parties, influenced by irredentist propaganda from Hungary, never joined the Czechoslovak government but were not openly hostile.

Beneš had served as Czechoslovak foreign minister from 1918 to 1935, and created the system of alliances that determined the republic's international stance until 1938. A democratic statesman of Western orientation, Beneš relied heavily on the League of Nations as guarantor of the post war status quo and the security of newly formed states. He negotiated the Little Entente (an alliance with Yugoslavia and Romania) in 1921 to counter Hungarian revanchism and Habsburg restoration. The Little Entente was consolidated by the signing of the Treaty of Alliance and Friendship between France and Czechoslovakia on 25 January 1924, followed by similar treaties between France and Romania (10 June 1926) and Yugoslavia (1 November 1927).

The leaders of Czechoslovakia needed to find solutions for the multiplicity of cultures living within one country. From 1928 and 1940, Czechoslovakia was divided into the four "lands" (Czech: země, Slovak: krajiny); Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Although in 1927 assemblies were provided for Bohemia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia, their jurisdiction was limited to adjusting laws and regulations of the central government to local needs.

Due to Czechoslovakia's centralized political structure, nationalism arose in the non-Czech nationalities, and several parties and movements were formed with the aim of broader political autonomy. The Slovak People's Party led by Andrej Hlinka is an example. When German dictator Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, fear of German aggression became widespread in eastern Central Europe. Beneš ignored the possibility of a stronger Central European alliance system, remaining faithful to his Western policy. He did, however, seek the participation of the Soviet Union in an alliance to include France. (Beneš's earlier attitude towards the Soviet regime had been one of caution.) In 1935 the Soviet Union signed treaties with France and Czechoslovakia. In essence, the treaties provided that the Soviet Union would come to Czechoslovakia's aid, but only if French assistance came first. Hitler himself remarked to his foreign minister von Neurath and top military officials in 1937 that he intended to absorb Bohemia and Austria, with a vague sentence about the need to expel two million Czechs and the eventual elimination of the Czech nation.

The German minority in Czechoslovakia, mostly living in Sudetenland, demanded autonomy within Czechoslovakia, claiming they were oppressed by the national government. The political vehicle for this agitation was the newly founded Sudeten German Party (Sudetendeutsche Partei - SdP) led by Konrad Henlein, and financed economically by Germany. In the 1935 Parliamentary elections, the SdP had a surprise success, securing over 2/3 of the Sudeten German vote. This worsened diplomatic relations between Germany and Czechoslovakia. Hitler met with Henlein in Berlin on March 28, 1938, and ordered him to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government. On April 24, the SdP issued the Carlsbad Decrees, demanding autonomy for the Sudetenland and the freedom to profess Nazi ideology. If these demands were granted, the Sudetenland could then align with Nazi Germany.

Politics
Czechoslovakia is a federal pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, with the Prime Minister as head of government. The Federal Assembly (Czech: Federální shromáždění, Slovak: Federálne zhromaždenie) is bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna) (300 members) and the Chamber of Nations (Sněmovny národů) (150 members, 75 from each republic).

In the Czechoslovak federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, republican (state), and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between regional and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a proportional representation vote of citizens by district.

The President of Czechoslovakia was being selected by a joint session of the parliament for a five-year term, with no more than two consecutive terms. This system was practiced between years 1946–1968. Since 1968 the presidential election is direct. The president is a formal head of state with limited specific powers, most importantly to return bills to the parliament, nominate constitutional court judges for the Senate's approval and dissolve the parliament under certain special and unusual circumstances. He also appoints the prime minister, as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister. The current president is Karel Schwarzenberg, elected in 2007 and reelected in 2012.

The Prime Minister is the head of government and wields considerable powers, including the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, mobilize the parliamentary majority and choose government ministers. The current prime minister, Slovak Robert Fico, was appointed in 2013 after the 2013 federal election.



The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a four-year term by party-list proportional representation using the D'Hondt method, with a 2% election threshold. As the government is only responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, it is the strongest of the two chambers.

The members of the Chamber of Nations represent the governments of the two federated republics and are members of the state cabinets. They are also voted for a four-year term, through a first-past-the-post vote. One senator is elected from each of the 150 voting districts, meaning there are an equal number of Czech and Slovak senators. A candidate for the Chamber of Nations does not need to be on a political party's ticket (unlike the lower chamber).

Czechoslovakia's highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president with Senate approval, and its 15 members serve ten-year terms. The justices of the Constitutional Court have a mandatory retirement age of 70. The Supreme Administrative Court is the third arm of the Czechoslovak judiciary.

Constituent states
Czechoslovakia is divided into two constituent republics established. Each republic has its own constitution and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation and domestic matters; areas that remain the responsibility of the federal government include military defence, police, justice, certain aspects of the economy, currency and foreign affairs.

Each Republic has its own legislature, known as the Czech National Council (Česká národní rada) and the Slovak National Council (Slovenská národná rada). Each legislature has 150 members, elected for a four-year term by party-list proportional representation using the D'Hondt method, with a 2% election threshold. Each legislature appoints an First Minister and an executive cabinet.

Administrative divisions
Since 1946, Czechoslovakia's two federal subjects has been divided into twenty-three regions (Czech and Slovak: župy, singular župa) and two cities with special status: Prague, the federal capital city and the capital of the Czech Federal Republic); and Bratislava, the capital of the Slovak Federal Republic. Fifteen of the regions are located in the Czech Federal Republic, while eight are located in the Slovak Federal Republic. Each region are administrated through directly elected regional assemblies (župské zastupitelstvo) who elect the regional Governor (hejtman).

The regions are then sub-divided into 150 second-level municipalities (okresy, singular okres), which in turn are administrated by directly elected municipal council, headed by a mayor and a small executive cabinet. Prague and Bratislava are considered both as regions and as municipalities. There are 75 municipalities in each republic, and also functions as voting districts.



Foreign relations
Czechoslovakia's alliances with France, the Little Entente and the Soviet Union formed the mainstay of their foreign policy in the interwar era. However, after being liberated by American and Soviet forces at the end of World War II, their geographical location meant that they had to shape their foreign policy on the basis of neutrality throughout the Cold War. Although they had been Francophile in the interwar era, strong pro-U.S. sentiment following their role in liberating the country and skepticism of Soviet domination of their neighbouring countries and their authoritarian nature, they were also grateful of the Soviet's role in liberating Czechoslovakia, and the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia did have substantial support among the population (as it had been in the interwar era). As a result, on June 16, 1947 the National Assembly passed the Declaration of Neutrality, in which Czechoslovakia declared they would remain neutral and not choose sides between the West and the Eastern Bloc, as well as pledging not to join any military alliances and not permit the establishment of any foreign military bases on her territory. As a result, Czechoslovakia lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union. They would often act as an mediator between the two superpowers and host several U.S.-Soviet Summits, including the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) between U.S. President and Soviet leader  in 1987. Czechoslovakia also became an epicenter for spying activities.

Czechoslovakia began to reassess its definition of neutrality following the fall of the Soviet Union, and joined the European Union (EU) in 1995, followed by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1999. Today, Czechoslovakia is a member of the European Union (EU), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), International Energy Agency (IEA), the Visegrád Group and the International Whaling Commission.

Despite being officially neutral throughout the Cold War, they remained close to the United States and have been one of their strongest supporters in the region. Ties with France have also remained close since the end of the war. During the 1960s, relations warmed between the Federal Republic of Germany and Czechoslovakia, and on August 27, 1962, German Chancellor and and Czechoslovak Prime Minister Miloslav Reichigl signed a Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Consular Relations. Similarily, relations between Czechoslovakia and Austria grew stronger in the 1950's and 1960's, sharing the role as neutral countries between the East and West.

Military
The manpower of the Czechoslovak Armed Forces (Česko-Slovenská armáda, ČSA) mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit have to serve a six months military service, followed by an eight-year reserve obligation. Conscientious objection is legally acceptable and those who claim this right are obliged to serve an institutionalised nine months civilian service instead. Since 1998, women volunteers have been allowed to become professional soldiers.

The two branches of the Czechoslovak Armed Forces are the Army (Česko-Slovenská armáda) and the Air Force (Česko-Slovenské vojenské letectvo). Austria is a landlocked country and has no navy.

The Army currently has about 60,000 soldiers, of whom about 36,000 are conscripts. As head of state, Czechoslovak President (currently Karel Schwarzenberg) is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. In practical reality, however, command of the Czechoslovak Armed Forces is almost exclusively exercised by the Minister of Defense and the Chief of Staff.

Shortly following World War II, the ČSA was equipped with a mixture of British, Soviet and former German equipment. As part of their neutrality agreement, Czechoslovakia tried to balance its purchases of equipment between Soviet, Western and domestic producers during the Cold War. From the 1950s, the army began to comprise of modern Czechoslovak-designed T-51 tanks, ST-I (Stihac Tanku; former German Hetzers), small arms by Česká zbrojovka of Uherský Brod (Sa vz. 58 assault rifle, 7.65 mm vz. 61 Škorpion submachine gun and 7.62 mm vz. 59 machine gun); trucks by Tatra as well as British Hawker Hunters. In the 1960s, joint German-Czechoslovak cooperation resulted in the Leopard 1 main battle tank (produced under license as the T-68) and the Schützenpanzer RS-60 (named BVP-60, for Bojové vozidlo pěchoty), domestic designs such as the Aero L-39 Albatros ground attack aircraft and OT-64 SKOT armored personnel carrier and Soviet MiG-21 fighters entered service. The 1970's brought further domestic designs such as the RM-70 rocket launcher, ShKH vz. 77 self-propelled gun, while the 1980's brought the BVP-80 (domestic variant of the Marder IFV) and the ČZ 1990 5.56 mm caliber weapon system, consisting of a standard rifle, carbine and light machine gun.

Today, the Czechoslovak Armed Forces have an arsenal comprising local (Tatra trucks, BVP-80s, OT-64s, joint Austro-Czechoslovak-designed KBVP Pandur IIs; ČZ 1990 and CZ-805 BREN small arms; L-151 Albatross attack aircraft), German (Leopard 2A5CSFR), French (NH90 transport helicopters) and American (F-18C/D Hornet) equipment.

The country has been a member of NATO since 12 March 1999. Currently, as a member of NATO, the Czech military are participating in ISAF in Afghanistan and KFOR in Kosovo.

Economy
Czechoslovakia is the 15th richest country in the world in terms of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita, has a well-developed social market economy, and a high standard of living. The principal industries are heavy and general machine-building, iron and steel production, metalworking, chemical production, electronics, transportation equipment, textiles, glass, brewing, porcelain, ceramics, beer and pharmaceuticals. The main agricultural products are sugar beets, fodder roots, wheat and potatoes. In the Czech lands hops also comprise a large amount of the agriculture, while Moravia and Slovakia have fruits, sunflowers and vineyards. The breeding of livestock, including pigs, cattle, sheep, and poultry is also important. Beer is another important Czech export article. Over 2 million hectolitres are exported every year from over 50 industrial breweries.

Czechoslovakia is known for its automotive industry. Leading Czech transportation companies include Škoda Auto (automobiles), Škoda Transportation (tramways, trolleybuses, metro), Tatra (the third oldest car maker in the world), Karosa (buses), Aero Vodochody (airplanes) and Jawa Motors (motorcycles). The footwear industry is also important: Baťa Shoes, founded in Zlín in 1894 by Tomáš Baťa, is one of the world's biggest multinational retailers, manufacturers and distributors of footwear and accessories.

Slovakia became industrialized mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Heavy industry (including coal mining and the production of machinery and steel) was built for strategic reasons because Slovakia was less exposed to the military threat than the western parts of Czechoslovakia. Building on a long-standing tradition and a highly skilled labor force, main industries with potential of growth are following sectors: automotive, electronics, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering and information technology.

Germany is the main trading partner of Czechoslovakia, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the German economy. Since becoming a member state of the European Union, it has gained closer ties to other EU economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership of the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to the aspiring economies of the European Union.

Unemployment rate is at 4.9%, giving the Czech Republic the second lowest unemployment rate in the European Union after Germany.

Industry and exports
The list includes the largest companies by turnover in 2011, but does not include major banks or insurance companies:

Energy
Production of Czechoslovak electricity exceeds consumption by about 10 TWh per year, which are exported. There are six nuclear power-plants in Czechoslovakia: four in the Czech Federative Republic (Dukovany, Blahutovice, Temelín and Tetov), while the remaining two are in Slovakia (Jaslovské Bohunice and Mochovce). All of them except Dukovany contains two operating reactors, while Dukovany has four reactors.

Nuclear power presently provides 53 percent. In 2005, 42.4 percent of electricity was produced by steam and combustion power plants (mostly coal); 30 percent by nuclear plants; and 4.6 percent from renewable sources, including hydropower.

Czechoslovakia is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade brown coal as a source of energy. Natural gas is procured from Russian Gazprom, roughly three-fourths of domestic consumption and from Norwegian companies, which make up most of the remaining one-fourth. Russian gas is imported via Ukraine (Druzhba pipeline), Norwegian gas is transported through Germany. Gas consumption (approx. 100 TWh in 2003–2005) is almost double electricity consumption. South Moravia has small oil and gas deposits.

Infrastructure
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk Airport in Prague is the main international airport in the country. In 2010, it handled 11.6 million passengers, which makes it the fifth busiest airport in Central and Eastern Europe. Other airports which provide international air services are located in Bratislava (M. R. Štefánik Airport), Brno, Karlovy Vary, Mošnov (near Ostrava), Pardubice, Kunovice (near Uherské Hradiště), Košice and Poprad.

There are eleven main highways D1 to D11 and fifteen express ways R1 to R15. The speed limit is 50 km/h within towns, 90 km/h outside of towns and 130 km/h on expressways. The D1 motorway connects Prague to Jihlava, Brno, Bratislava and Budapest in the north-south direction, while D2 connects Bratislava to Trnava, Nitra, Trenčín, Žilina and beyond. The D3 (an outer bypass) connects the D1 and D2 north of Bratislava. While D4 and D5 connects Czechoslovakia to Germany, D6 and D7 connects the country directly to the Austrian motorway system and was opened on 19 November 2007.

Československé federativní dráhy (the Czechoslovak Federative Railways) is the main railway operator in Czechoslovakia, with about 180 million passengers carried yearly. Its cargo division, ČD Cargo, is the fifth largest railway cargo operator in the European Union. With 13,163 km of tracks, Czechoslovakia has one of the densest railway networks in Europe.

The Port of Bratislava is one of the two international river ports in Czechoslovakia. The port connects Bratislava to international boat traffic, especially the interconnection from the North Sea to the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. Additionally, tourist lines operate from Bratislava's passenger port, including routes to Devín, Vienna and elsewhere.

Tourism
The Czechoslovak economy gets a substantial income from tourism. Prague is the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome. In 2001, the total earnings from tourism reached 118 billion CSK, making up 5.5% of GNP and 9% of overall export earnings. The industry employs more than 110,000 people.

There are several centres of tourist activity. The spa towns, such as Karlovy Vary, Mariánské Lázně and Františkovy Lázně, are particularly popular relaxing holiday destinations. Architectural heritage is another object of visitor´s interest – it includes many castles and chateaux from different historical epoques, namely Karlštejn Castle, Český Krumlov and the Lednice–Valtice area. There are 12 cathedrals and 15 churches elevated to the rank of basilica by the Pope, calm monasteries, many modern and ancient churches – for example Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk is one of those inscribed on the World Heritage List. Away from the towns, areas such as Český ráj, Šumava and the Krkonoše Mountains attract visitors seeking outdoor pursuits.

Slovakia features natural landscapes, mountains, caves, medieval castles and towns, folk architecture, spas and ski resorts. More than 1.6 million people visited Slovakia in 2014, and the most attractive destinations are the capital of Bratislava and the High Tatras. Most visitors come from Poland (15%) and Germany (11%).

Puppetry and marionette exhibitions are very popular, with a number of puppet festivals throughout the country. Typical souvenirs from the Czech Federative Republic are marionette dolls and wooden toys, crystal glass, garnet jewellery (granát), memorabilia of Art Nouveau painter Alfons Mucha and Czech porcelain (cibulák), while popular souvenirs from Slovakia are dolls dressed in folk costumes, carved wooden figures, črpáks (wooden pitchers), fujaras (a folk instrument on the UNESCO list) and valaškas (a decorated folk hatchet) and above all products made from corn husks and wire, notably human figures.

The country is also known for its various museums. Aquapalace Praha in Čestlice near Prague, is the biggest water park in central Europe.

The Czech Federative Republic has a number of beer festivals, including: Czech Beer Festival (the biggest Czech beer festival, it is usually 17 days long and held every year in May in Prague), Pilsner Fest (every year in August in Plzeň), The "Olomoucký pivní festival" (in Olomouc) or festival "Slavnosti piva v Českých Budějovicích" (in České Budějovice).

Demographics
According to the results of the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of Czechoslovakia are Czechs (62.8%), followed by Slovaks (31%), Hungarians (3.8%), Romani people (0.7%), Silesians (0.3%) and smaller numbers of Ruthenes, Ukrainians, Germans, Poles and Jews (the post-Holocaust community).

The Jewish population of Czechoslovakia, 154,288 according to the 1930 census, was virtually annihilated by the Nazi Germans during the Holocaust. Today, there are approximately 6500 Jews in Czechoslovakia. The former Czechoslovak president, Madeleine Jana Körbelová, is of Jewish origin.

Languages
Czech and Slovak are the official languages of Czechoslovakia, and both are used in public administration, schools, churches, and media. Both languages are so mutually intelligible that it is possible for Czech and Slovak speakers to understand each other with relatively little effort. However, eastern Slovak dialects (which blend into the Rusyn language) are less intelligible to speakers of Czech; they differ from Czech and from other Slovak dialects.

In areas with large populations of minorities, German, Hungarian and Polish are recognised as regional languages, and are used in local public administration, schools, churches, and some media. Besides this, Romani, Russian, Rusyn, Ukrainian and Yiddish also have minority status.

A majority of Czechs and Slovaks are multilingual: 71% of Czechoslovaks citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 45% in at least two. The majority (64%) speak English as a second language, generally with a conversational level of proficiency. German is the second-most spoken foreign language, with (62%) reporting a conversational level of proficiency. French and Russian are also commonly taught as second or, more often, third languages.

Religion
The Czechoslovak constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and the country has a varied religious heritage. A majority of the population is Roman Catholics (51.7%), but within the two main ethnic groups there are a sizable minority of Protestants: Hussites and Bohemian Brethren in the Czech lands, and Lutherans in Slovakia. In total, around 17.3% of the population is Protestant, of which 12.6% belong to the Czechoslovak Reformed Church (the Hussites). 1.2% of the population are Uniates (Greek Catholic Church; preserving the Eastern rite and discipline but submitting to papal authority), while 1.7% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not.

Czechoslovakia is, however, also one of the least religious populations in the world. Historically, the Czech people have been characterised as "tolerant and even indifferent towards religion". According to the 2011 census, 21.5% of the population stated they had no religion, while 6.6% of the population did not answer the question about religion.

The distribution of religious beliefs differs between the Czech and Slovak people. In 2011, 41.2% of Czechs identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 19.2% as Hussites, 3.2% as belonging to some other Protestant denomination, 2.4% as following other forms of religion, 26.5% identified themselves as having no religion and 8.3% did not answer the question about their belief. Meanwhile, 72% of Slovaks identified themselves as Roman Catholics, 7.9% as Protestants, 3.8% as Greek Catholics, 0.9% as Orthodox, 11.8% identified themselves as having no religion and 3.6% did not answer the question about their belief.

Cuisine
Czechoslovak cuisine is marked by a strong emphasis on meat dishes. Both Czech and Slovak cuisine are relatively closely related to Hungarian and Austrian cuisine, while in Eastern Slovakia it is also influenced by Ukrainian and Polish cuisine. The Czechoslovak cuisine is based mainly on pork meat, beef and poultry (chicken is the most widely eaten, followed by duck, goose, and turkey), flour, potatoes, cabbage, and milk products. Wild game (boar, rabbit and venison) as well as lamb and goat are served, while fish is rare, with the occasional exception of fresh trout and carp, which is served at Christmas.

The traditional Czech meals are Vepřo knedlo zelo (roast pork with bread dumplings and stewed cabbage), Svíčková na smetaně (roast sirloin of beef with steamed dumplings and cream of vegetable sauce), Rajská a omáčka (beef in tomato sauce, traditionally served with dumplings) Koprovka (beef in dill sauce, traditionally served with dumplings), Pečená kachna (roast duck), Guláš (goulash) and Řízek (Schnitzel). Other popular dishes are Smažený sýr (fried cheese) and Bramboráky (potato pancakes, traditionally served with sour cabbage), and there is also a large variety of local sausages, wurst, pâtés, and smoked and cured meats. Czech desserts include a wide variety of whipped cream, chocolate, and fruit pastries and tarts, crepes, creme desserts and cheese, poppy seed filled and other types of traditional cakes such as buchty, koláče and štrůdl.

The traditional Slovak meals are bryndzové halušky, bryndzové pirohy and other meals with potato dough and bryndza. Bryndza is a salty cheese made of a sheep milk, characterized by a strong taste and aroma. Bryndzové halušky must be on the menu of every traditional Slovak restaurant. A typical soup is a sauerkraut soup ("kapustnica"). A blood sausage called "jaternica", made from any and all parts of a butchered pig is also a specific Slovak meal.

Czech beer has a long and important history. The first brewery is known to have existed in 1118 and the Czechoslovakia has the highest beer consumption per capita in the world. The famous pilsner style beer originated in the western Bohemian city of Plzeň, where world famous Pilsner Urquell is still being produced, and further south the town of České Budějovice, known as Budweis in German, lent its name to its beer, eventually known as Budweiser Budvar. Other famous brands are Staropramen, Velkopovický Kozel, Krušovice, Gambrinus and Radegast. Apart from these and other major brands, Czechoslovakia also boasts a growing number of top quality small breweries and mini-breweries seeking to continue the age-old tradition of quality and taste, whose output matches the best in the world: Štiřín, Chýně, Oslavany, Kácov. While beer is also popular in Slovakia (with brands such as Zlatý Bažant, Šariš and Steiger), the Slovak brewing industry lagged far behind that in the Czech lands. To try to balance this, the federal government helped Slovakia build several large new breweries in the 1950s and 1960s.

In Slovakia and Moravia, wine is very popular. Slovak wine comes predominantly from the southern areas along the Danube and its tributaries. The northern half of the country is too cold and mountainous to grow grapevines. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but in recent years tastes seem to be changing. In Southern Moravia there has been wine production since the Middle Ages. Aside from slivovice (slivovitz, or plum brandy), beer and wine, two unique liquors are also produced in Czechoslovakia: Fernet Stock and Becherovka. Kofola is a non-alcoholic domestic cola soft drink which competes with Coca Cola and Pepsi in popularity.

Sports
Sports play a part in the life of many Czechs and Slovaks, who are generally loyal supporters of their favorite teams or individuals. The three leading sports in the Czech Republic are ice hockey, football and athletics, with the first two and hockey in particular drawing the largest attention of both the media and supporters. Sport is a source of strong waves of patriotism, usually rising several days or weeks before an event. The events considered the most important by Czechoslovak fans are the Ice Hockey World Championships, Olympic Ice hockey tournament, UEFA European Football Championship, FIFA World Cup and qualification matches for such events. In general, any international match of the Czechoslovak ice hockey or football national team draws attention, especially when played against a traditional rival.

The Czechoslovak national ice hockey team has been one of the world's premiere teams and won many medals from the world championships and Olympic Games. In the 1940s, they established themselves as the best team in Europe, becoming the first team from the continent to win three World Championships (1947, 1949 and 1950), and won the gold medal at the 1956 Winter Olympics. After the arrival of the Soviet Union on the international hockey scene in the 1950s, the Czechoslovaks regularly fought Sweden and Canada for silver and bronze medals, but sometimes beat the Soviets, especially in the 1970s. In the 1990s and early 2000s the Czechoslovaks dominated international hockey, winning the gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics and won four straight gold medals at the world championships from 1999 to 2002. In total the Czechoslovak national team has won two gold, four silver and eight bronze medals at the Winter Olympics, one Canada Cup (in 1981) as well as 18 gold, 18 silver and 17 bronze medals at the Ice Hockey World Championships. Famous players, many of them having had successful NHL careers include Jaromír Jágr, Peter Šťastný, Dominik Hašek, Peter Bondra, Miroslav Šatan, Pavol Demitra, Václav Nedomanský, Ivan Hlinka, František Pospíšil, Jiří Holík, Bohumil Modrý, Ladislav Troják and Jaroslav Drobný.

The Czechoslovakia national football team was a consistent performer on the international scene, with eight appearances in the FIFA World Cup Finals, finishing in second place in 1934 and 1962. The team also won the European Football Championship in 1976, came in third in 1980 and won the Olympic gold in 1980.

Athletics have also been a popular sport, especially as part of the Sokol movement, a youth sport movement and gymnastics organization established in 1862. Since arranging the first set in 1882, the movement and the mass gymnastics flourished in the early interwar period and by 1930 had 630,000 members. Since then the membership and popularity has fallen below pre-war levels, but are still arranged every six years. Among the best Czechoslovak gymnasts are Emil Zátopek, winner of four Olympic gold medals in athletics (considered one of the top athletes in history) and Věra Čáslavská, an Olympic gold medalist in gymnastics, winning seven gold medals and four silver medals and representing Czechoslovakia in three consecutive Olympics.

The Czech Republic also has great influence on tennis with such players as Ivan Lendl, Tomáš Berdych, Miloslav Mečíř, Hana Mandlíková, Martina Hingis, Martina Navratilova and Daniela Hantuchová.