Austria-Hungary (Rise of the South Map Game)

Austria-Hungary (also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Monarchy or k.u.k. Monarchy, Dual Monarchy, Danube Monarchy), more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in Central Europe, which operated from 1867 to October 1918, following the end of World War I. The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, under which the House of Habsburg agreed to share power with the separate Hungarian government, dividing the territory of the former Austrian Empire between them. The Austrian and the Hungarian lands became independent entities enjoying equal status.|[7]

Austria-Hungary was a multinational realm and one of the world's great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire (621,538 square kilometres (239,977 sq mi)|[8] ), and the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire). The Empire built up the fourth largest machine building industry of the world (after the United States, German Empire and the United Kingdom).|[9]

The Austro-Hungarian Empire consisted of two monarchies (Austria and Hungary), and three autonomous regions: Polish Galicia within Austrian Empire (from 1867) and Croatia within Kingdom of Hungary (from 1868). Bosnia and Herzegovina and Sandžak-Raška region were under Austro-Hungarian military occupation between 1878 and 1908,|[10] when the former one was fully annexed|[11] and the latter one was ceded to the Ottoman Empire.|[12]

The dual monarchy existed for 51 years until it dissolved on 31 October 1918 at the end of World War I. Many modern-day nation states have emerged in the territory formerly belonging to the realm. These include Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, large parts of Serbia and Romania, and smaller parts of Italy, Montenegro, Poland and Ukraine.

Contents
[hide] *1 Structure and name
 * 1.1 Name in official languages of Austria-Hungary
 * 1.2 Creation
 * 2 Politics and government
 * 2.1 Government
 * 2.2 Judicial system
 * 2.3 Local administration and Local governments
 * 2.4 Largest cities of the Dual Monarchy
 * 2.5 Politics
 * 2.5.1 Political struggles in the Empire
 * 2.5.2 Elections
 * 2.6 Foreign policy
 * 3 Economy
 * 3.1 Automotive industry
 * 3.2 Locomotive engine and railway vehicle manufacturers
 * 4 Infrastructure
 * 4.1 Transport
 * 4.1.1 Railways
 * 4.1.2 Canals
 * 4.1.3 Metropolitan transit systems
 * 4.1.3.1 Tramway lines in the cities
 * 4.1.3.2 Underground
 * 4.1.4 Shipping and ports
 * 4.2 Telecommunication
 * 4.2.1 Telegraph
 * 4.2.2 Telephone
 * 5 Ethnic relations
 * 5.1 Linguistic distribution
 * 5.2 Religions (1910 census)
 * 6 Military
 * 7 World War I
 * 7.1 Preludes: Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * 7.1.1 The status of Bosnia-Herzegovina
 * 7.2 Decision for war
 * 7.3 Main events
 * 7.3.1 Serbian front
 * 7.3.2 Russian front
 * 7.3.3 Italian Front
 * 7.3.4 Romanian front
 * 7.4 Role of Hungary
 * 7.5 Analysis of defeat
 * 8 Dissolution
 * 8.1 Consequences
 * 8.1.1 Successor states
 * 8.1.2 Territorial legacy
 * 9 Flags and heraldry
 * 9.1 Flags
 * 9.2 Coat of arms
 * 10 See also
 * 11 References
 * 11.1 Notes
 * 11.2 Surveys
 * 11.3 Specialty topics
 * 11.4 Primary sources
 * 11.5 In German
 * 12 External links

Structure and name edit source | editbeta]
The Habsburg monarch ruled as Emperor of Austria|[13] over the western and northern half of the country that was the Austrian Empire (Cisleithania or "Lands represented in the Imperial Council")|[14] and as King of Hungary|[13] over the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania or "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen").|[14] Each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence).|[15]

Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Hungary, enjoyed autonomous status, each with its own unique governmental structures (see: Polish Autonomy in Galicia and Croatian-Hungarian Agreement).

The division was so marked between Austria and Hungary that there was no common citizenship: a person living in Austria-Hungary was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both.|[16] |[17] The difference in citizenship also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, never a common one.|[18] |[19]

The Empire of Austria and Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained separate parliaments. (See: Imperial Council (Austria) and Diet of Hungary.) Legally, except for the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, common laws have never existed in the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. All laws, even the ones with identical content such as the compromise of 1867, had to pass the parliaments of both Vienna and Budapest. They were published in the respective official media, in the Austrian part it was called Reichsgesetzblatt, and was issued in eight languages.

Despite the fact that Austria and Hungary shared a common currency they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities.|[20] From 1527 (the creation of the monarchic personal union) to 1851 the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs borders which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21">|[21] Since 1867 the Austrian and Hungarian customs union agreement had to be renegotiated and stipulated every ten years. The agreements were renewed and signed by Vienna and Budapest at the end of every decade because both countries hoped to derive mutual economic benefit by the customs union. The Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary contracted their foreign commercial treaties independently of each other.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_22-0">|[22]

As a multinational empire and great power in an era of national awakening, Austria-Hungary (a prison of nations according to some <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23">|[23] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24">|[24] ) had politics often dominated by disputes among the eleven principal national groups.

The two capitals of the Monarchy were Vienna for Austria and Buda for Hungary. In 1873 when Buda united with two neighbouring cities (Pest and Óbuda), Budapest became the new capital.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Britannica1911_14-2">|[14] Vienna served as the Monarchy's primary capital. The Cisleithan part contained about 57% of the combined realm's population and the larger share of its economic resources. Despite the recurrent great mass emigrations towards the USA and Western Europe -due to the tortured history of the region in the 20th century- today the territory of the former empire has a total population of about 69 million.

Name in official languages of Austria-Hungary edit source | editbeta]
The Monarchy bore the name internationally of  Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie  (by decision of Franz Joseph I in 1868). Its full name,  Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der Heiligen Ungarischen Stephanskrone  meant "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Hungarian Holy Crown of St. Stephen".

Names of the Dual Monarchy in the officially recognized languages of its citizens:
 * Bosnian: Austro-Ugarska
 * Croatian: Austro-Ugarska
 * Czech: Rakousko-Uhersko
 * German: Österreich-Ungarn
 * Hungarian: Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia
 * Italian: Austria-Ungheria
 * Polish: Austro-Węgry
 * Romanian: Austro-Ungaria
 * Serbian: Aустро-Угарска/Austro-Ugarska
 * Slovak: Rakúsko-Uhorsko
 * Slovene: Avstro-Ogrska
 * Ukrainian: Австро-Угорщина (transliterated:  Avstro-Uhorshchyna )

Creation edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (called the Ausgleich in German and the Kiegyezés in Hungarian), which inaugurated the empire's dual structure in place of the former unitary Austrian Empire (1804–67), originated at a time when Austria had declined in strength and in power—both in the Italian Peninsula (as a result of the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859) and among the states of the German Confederation. (It had been surpassed by Prussia as the dominant German-speaking power following the Austro-Prussian War, also named the German War, of 1866.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25">|[25]

Other factors in the constitutional changes were continued Hungarian dissatisfaction with rule from Vienna and increasing national consciousness on the part of other nationalities (or ethnicities) of the Austrian Empire. Hungarian dissatisfaction arose partly from Austria's suppression with Russian support of the Hungarian liberal revolution of 1848–49. However, dissatisfaction with Austrian rule had grown for many years within Hungary and had many other causes.

By the late 1850s a large number of Hungarians who had supported the 1848–49 revolution were willing to accept the Habsburg monarchy. They argued that while Hungary had the right to full internal independence, under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defense were "common" to both Austria and Hungary.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kann_1974_26-0">|[26]

After the Austrian defeat at Königgrätz the government realized it needed to reconcile with Hungary to regain the status of a great power. The new foreign minister, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, wanted to conclude the stalemated negotiations with the Hungarians. To secure the monarchy Emperor Franz Joseph began negotiations for a compromise with the Hungarian nobility, led by Ferenc Deák, to ensure their support. In particular Hungarian leaders demanded and received the Emperor's coronation as King of Hungary and the re-establishment of a separate parliament at Budapest with powers to enact laws for the lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kann_1974_26-1">|[26]

From 1867 onwards the abbreviations heading the names of official institutions in Austria-Hungary reflected their responsibility: K. u. k. ( kaiserlich und königlich  or Imperial and Royal) was the label for institutions common to both parts of the Monarchy, e.g. the  k.u.k. Kriegsmarine  (War Fleet) and, during the war, the  k.u.k. Armee  (Army). There were three  k.u.k.  or joint ministries: The last was responsible only for financing the Imperial and Royal household, the diplomatic service, the common army and the common war fleet. All other state functions were to be handled separately by each of the two states.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Taylor_1964_27-0">|[27]
 * The Imperial and Royal Ministry of the Exterior and the Imperial House
 * The Imperial and Royal War Ministry
 * The Imperial and Royal Ministry of Finance

From 1867 onwards common expenditures were allocated 70% to Austria and 30% to Hungary. This split had to be negotiated every 10 years. By 1907 the Hungarian share had risen to 36.4%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kronenbitter_28-0">|[28] The negotiations in 1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy.

The common army changed its label from  k.k.  to  k.u.k.  only in 1889 at the request of the Hungarian government.
 *  K. k.  ( kaiserlich-königlich ) or Imperial-Royal was the term for institutions of Cisleithania (Austria); "royal" in this label referred to the crown of Bohemia.
 *  K. u.  ( königlich-ungarisch ) or  M. k.  ( Magyar királyi ) ("Hungarian Royal") referred to Transleithania, the lands of the Hungarian crown.

Government edit source | editbeta]
See also: Imperial Council (Austria) and Diet of HungaryThere were three parts to the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29">|[29] Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments each with its own prime minister. Linking/co-ordinating the two parliaments fell to a government under a monarch wielding absolute power in theory but limited in practice. The monarch's common government had the responsibility for the army, for the navy, for foreign policy, and for the customs union.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30">|[30]
 * 1) common foreign, military and joint financial policy under the monarch
 * 2) the "Austrian" or Cisleithanian government
 * 3) the Hungarian government

Due to the lack of common law between Austria and Hungary, to conclude identical texts, the two parliaments elected delegations of 60 of their members each which discussed motions of the Imperial & Royal ministries separately and worked toward compromise.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Taylor_1964_27-1">|[27]

A common Ministerial Council ruled the common government: it comprised the three ministers for the joint responsibilities (joint finance, military, and foreign policy), the two prime ministers, some Archdukes and the monarch.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sked_1989_31-0">|[31] Two delegations of representatives (60–60 members), one each from the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, met separately and voted on the expenditures of the Common Ministerial Council giving the two governments influence in the common administration. However, the ministers ultimately answered only to the monarch who he had the final decision on matters of foreign and military policy.

Overlapping responsibilities between the joint ministries and the ministries of the two halves caused friction and inefficiencies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Taylor_1964_27-2">|[27] The armed forces suffered particularly from overlap. Although the unified government determined overall military direction the Austrian and Hungarian governments each remained in charge of recruiting, supplies and training. Each government could have a strong influence over common governmental responsibilities. Each half of the Dual Monarchy proved quite prepared to disrupt common operations to advance its own interests.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sked_1989_31-1">|[31]

Relations during the half-century after 1867 between the two parts of the Empire featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. Under the terms of the "Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867", an agreement renegotiated every ten years, determined these matters. There was political turmoil during the build-up to each renewal of the agreement. The disputes between the two parts of the Empire culminated in the early 1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis. It was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command in Hungarian army units, and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Taylor_1964_27-3">|[27]

Judicial system edit source | editbeta]
Empire of Austria

Kingdom of Hungary

The judicial power was independent of the administrative power. The judicial authorities in Hungary were: (1) the district courts with single judges (458 in 1905); (2) the county courts with collegiate judgeships (76 in number); to these were attached 15 jury courts for press offences. These were courts of first instance. (3) Royal Tables (12 in number), which were courts of second instance, established at Budapest, Debrecen, Győr, Kassa, Kolozsvár, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pécs, Pressburg, Szeged, Temesvár and Zagreb. (4) The Royal Supreme Court at Budapest, and the Supreme Court of Justice, or Table of Septemvirs, at Zagrab, which were the highest judicial authorities. There were also a special commercial court at Budapest, a naval court at Fiume, and special army courts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Encyclop.C3.A6dia_Britannica_1911_32-0">|[32]

Local administration and Local governments edit source | editbeta]
Empire of Austria

The organization of the administrative system in the Austrian Empire was complicated by the fact that between the State and the purely local communal administration there intruded yet a third element, grounded in history, the territories (Lander). The State administration comprised all affairs having relation to rights, duties and interests " which are common to all territories"; all other administrative tasks were left to the territories. Finally, the communes had self-government within their own sphere.

To this division of the work of administration corresponded a three-fold organization of the authorities: State, territorial and communal. The State authorities were divided on geographical lines into central, intermediate and local, and side by side with this there was a division of the offices for the transaction of business according to the various branches of the administration. The central authorities, which as early as the 18th century worked together in a common mother cell of the State chancery, became differentiated so soon as the growing tasks of administration called for specialization; in 1869 there were seven departments, and in the concluding decade of the Austrian Empire there were set up Ministries of Labour, Food, Public Health and Social Care. Under these ministries came the Statthalter, whose administrative area had ordinarily the proportions of a Crown territory (Kronland); but the immense variations in area of the Crown territories made a uniform and consistent intermediate administrative organization practically impossible. The lowest administrative unit was the political sub-district (Bezirk) under an official (Bezirkshauptmann), who united nearly all the administrative functions which were divided among the various ministries according to their attributions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33">|[33]

Kingdom of Hungary

As regards local government, the country was divided into municipalities or counties, which possessed a certain amount of self-government. Hungary proper was divided into sixty-three rural, and – including Fiume – twenty-six urban municipalities (see section on Administrative Divisions). These urban municipalities were towns which for their local government were independent of the counties in which they were situated, and have, therefore, a larger amount of municipal autonomy than the communes or the other towns. The administration of the municipalities is carried on by an official appointed by the king, aided by a representative body. Since 1876 each municipality had a council of twenty members to exercise control over its administration. According to this division Hungary proper is divided into seven circles. Besides these sixty-three rural counties for Hungary, and eight for Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary had twenty-six urban counties or towns with municipal rights. These were: Arad, Baja, Debreczen, Győr, Hódmezővasarhely, Kassa, Kecskemét, Kolozsvár, Komarom, Marosvásárhely, Nagyvárad, Pancsova, Pécs, Pozsony, Selmecz-es Bélabanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmárnémeti, Szeged, Székesfehervár, Temesvár, Újvidék, Versecz, Zombor, the town of Fiume, and Budapest, the capital of the county.

In Croatia-Slavonia there were four urban counties or towns with municipal rights namely: Osijek, Varaždin, Zagreb and Zemun<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34">|[34]

Largest cities of the Dual Monarchy edit source | editbeta]
Data: census in 1910<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35">|[35]

Politics edit source | editbeta]
See also: Lands of the Crown of Saint StephenThe first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy (1867–1871). The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Andrássy next served as the Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (1871–1879).

The Empire relied increasingly on a cosmopolitan bureaucracy – in which Czechs played an important role – backed by loyal elements, including a large part of the German, Hungarian, Polish and Croat aristocracy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Analysis:_Austria.27s_troubled_history_37-0">|[37]