Western Roman Empire (Seven Roman States)

The Western Roman Empire (or, officially, the Roman Empire) was the western division of the Roman Empire from its division by the Emperor Diocletian in 285; the western and eastern divisions each later split evenly into two. The groundwork for the establishment of a united West is often accredited with the date of 312, when Constantine reunited the Wet. The East, broken into the Nicomedian and Pannonian Empires, would remain divided.

The Western Roman Empire was called simply the Roman Empire or Romania by its inhabitants and neighbours. Centered on the capital of Ravenna, it was ruled by emperors in direct succession to the ancient Roman emperors. As the distinction between "Roman Empire" and "Western Roman Empire" is largely a modern convention, it is not possible to assign a date of separation, but an important point is Diocletian's division of Rome's territories in A.D. 285.

The Western Roman Empire existed for more than a thousand years (from approximately 312 to 1860). During its existence, the Empire remained one of the most resilient, yet one of the weakest forces in Europe, despite setbacks and territorial losses, especially during the early wars against Germanic tribes. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the German princes, especially under Bohemian influence.

Background of the Roman Empire
As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point at which the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic, given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disaster, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome, and for Rome's orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial governors had de facto rule in the name of the Roman republic. Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided among the Second Triumvirate, composed of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece and Macedonia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.

Octavian, on the other hand, obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal). These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings. Upon the defeat of Mark Anthony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures, all were often said to experience gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines.

Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or cities would revolt, and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime, as for example in the Great Jewish Revolt. The main enemy in the West was arguably the Germanic tribes behind the rivers Rhine and Danube. Augustus had tried to conquer them but ultimately pulled back after the Teutoburg reversal.

The Parthian Empire, in the East, on the other hand, was too remote and powerful to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, and the Parthians similarly repelled some attempts of Roman invasion, but, even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan and Septimius Severus, those distant territories were forsaken to prevent unrest and also to ensure a more healthy and lasting peace with the Persians.

Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy, because it was relatively near and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes, but controlling both frontiers at the same time during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice-versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors, and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors.

Under the reign of the Emperor Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted Maximian to the rank of Augustus (Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates (Caesars), creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the empire into four major regions and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's Mediolanum (now Milan) and Constantius' Trier. In the East, the capitals were Sirmium and Nicomedia. On 1 May 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down, and their respective Caesars were promoted to Augusti and appointed two new Caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy.

The four Tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire against bordering rivals (notably Sassanian Persia) and barbarians (mainly Germanic, and an endless procession from the eastern steppe; many nomadic or elsewhere chased tribes) at the Rhine and Danube.

End of the Tetrarchy in the West
The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his son Constantine was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain. A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In 308, the Augustus of the East, Galerius, arranged a conference at Carnuntum which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named Licinius. Constantine, however, was far more interested in conquering the whole empire.

Through a series of battles in the West, Constantine stabilized the western part of the Roman Empire by 314, and began to compete with his eastern rivals for sole control of a reunified state. The naval battle fought at Byzantium in 313 A.D. ruins his invasion plans for the East, however, which remains halved between Licinius and Maximinus.

Early Years
The Western Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, civil war came close to erupting among his three sons. The West was saved under Constantius, who assassinated his two brothers rather than share the empire with them.

Constantius II focused most of his efforts in warring against the Eastern Empire of Pannonia (The kingdom of Licinius), and is often regarded as one of the strongest Western emperors. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, took power. Julian was killed in 370 by his own soldiers and was replaced by a usurper, Flavian, who ruled only for six months. A series of military generals tore the West into civil war for seven long years, which nearly shattered the very fabric of the empire. Manipulating affairs in the West, Pannonia and Nicomedia (Maximinus's empire) groomed their own candidates for the title of Western emperor.

In the brutal wars and chaos which followed, Procopius, a candidate of the Nicomedian domains, emerged as emperor in 377. Stability was not achieved for long, as conflicts with internal and outside forces grew. Magnus Maximus, a popular military commander, then deposed Procopius. He, in turn, was deposed by Virius Nicomachus Flavianus. Flavius Rufinus, a former usurper in Pannonia, then seized the throne. With the death of Constantine's last direct descendant, the Western Roman Empire suffered because the throne did not have a clear line of accession. The Roman frontier garrisons also became locked in bloody conflicts as Germanic tribes neared the borders of the West.

More than in the Eastern nations, there was opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western half of the empire. Persecution against Pagans only intensified as the years dragged on. A bitter dispute with the Empire of Pannonia over the provinces of Illyricum also further weakened the West, as it drove both empires almost to the point of civil war.

Turbulent Periods
The West, less urbanized and less densely populated, experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces. Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities) to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas suffered. Pannonia and Nicomedia in the East, always wealthier, were not so destitute, especially as Emperors like Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy.

As a result, the Eastern Empires could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire couldn't afford this to the same extent. Even in the case of a major defeat, the Eastern emperors could, certainly not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom. The Western Empire's resources were much limited, and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders, where the Western Empire would often have a lot of difficulties paying. Sometimes deals would be struck with the leaders of barbarian mercenaries rewarding them with land, which led to a downward spiral as less land meant there would be even less taxes to support the military.

The political situation was unstable, and only worsened by the continued attacks on the empire by the Goths, a German tribe which were already fighting the Pannonians in Illyria. When the imperial court at Sirmium refused to let them into the empire a few years earlier, the Goths, desperate to escape the Huns at their backs, forced their way into the Balkans and began ravaging Greece. The emperor Licinius II had tried to control them only to suffer a massive defeat at their hands in Thrace.

Slowly but surely beaten back by the Pannonian field legions, the Goths turned their eyes on the weaker Western Roman Empire. In 401, Alaric, king of the Gothic nation, destroyed a large Roman army in northern Italy and marched on Rome. This signified a major weakening of the empire, as Barbarians were able to invade the heartland of the empire itself. The frontier garrisons in Britain were recalled to defend the city, and the British provinces were lost to Roman hands forever. The Romano-British people, greatly weakened by the withdrawal of the Western empire's forces, tried to stave off invading Saxons and other German tribes over the next century, without success.

Flavius Rufinus, unable to counter the Germanic threat, surrendered to Alaric and paid him a huge ransom, drying up Rome's treasuries to meet the Goths' demands. The Romans had saved Italy against the invading Goths, but failed to control the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi who invaded Gaul in massive numbers. In 407, the Roman garrison was able to repel the still-dissatisfied Alaric from the walls of Rome itself. A previously jailed traitor, Stilicho, led the defense ably. This did nothing to quiet the jealousy of Rufinus, who had had Stilicho jailed before on flimsy basis. By 408, he had been executed and Alaric was given a land grant in northern Italy to appease him. But the next year, a famine struck the Goths, who increased their demands due to their need for food and unwillingness or inability to return to the East seeking it. Rufinus was unable to meet their demands, so Alaric held Rome to ransom, surrounding the city. With the death of Stilicho, no one was capable of rallying the defense. Alaric, popular with the Roman Senate, drove a rift between them and the emperor by having them appoint a new ruler and refuse to recognize Rufinus. In return, Alaric spared Rome.

Rufinus, enraged at their betrayal, excommunicates the Senate and leads an army against them. However, he is strangled by an assassin of Alaric, thwarting his plans and leaving the Senate's candidate, Priscus Attalus, as Western Roman emperor. In 410, the Senate, wary of Alaric's shadow and concerned with reestablishing the Western Roman Empire under a slightly more republican model, resort to treachery against the Goths. Alaric is betrayed to his death, and in retaliation, the furious Goths take Rome by surprise and thoroughly sack the city. This event made a great impression on contemporaries, as this was the first time since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC that the city had fallen to a foreign enemy. Under Alaric's successors, the Goths then settled in Gaul (412–418), from where they operated as Roman allies against the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi in Spain. The Senate flees to Matheola, killing Priscus Attalus in the process when they feel they have no more need for him.

In the north, while the Goths go on a rampage, the imperial court is fought over by several would-be emperors, with Procopius II installing himself as the monarch of the coveted title. His short reign was marked by feeble attempts to repel Germanic tribes, as well as numerous rebellions. Flavius Aetius, a high-ranking Western commander, finally killed the emperor and installed himself as the ruler.

Though the rift with the Senate had grown dangerously close to schism (The Senate no longer recognized emperors and ruled most of southern Italy like their own state), they hoped to gain favor with Aetius and possibly manipulate him, as they refused to aid a North African rebel attempting to have him overthrown. Flavius Felix, a Roman politician and staunch opponent of Aetius then had him killed and assumed the throne.

Felix was fair and capable as Western emperors went, although not very popular with the Roman people. His reign was marked by a brief return to fortunes, as he shrewdly played the Pannonians, Goths, and various Germanic tribes against each other for his own means. However, his one major failure was his inability to halt the loss of North Africa. Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under their king Gaiseric to cross over from Spain in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia (435) before moving eastward and capturing Carthage, from where they established an independent state with a powerful navy (439). The Vandal fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean.

Meanwhile, the savage Huns, led by the fearsome Attila, were already pouring into the Empire of Pannonia. The Huns, who had been employed as Roman allies by Aetius, were now united as never before under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former allies, the Huns became a formidable threat to the empire. The Huns established an empire which covered much of the Balkans, Thrace, and even encompassed the Pannonian capital of Sirmium itself, where Attila could keep an eye on the emperor. Faced with the armies of the much weaker Western empire, he invaded Gaul and was only stopped when Felix had him assassinated.

In 455, with the Huns no longer a threat, Felix died peacefully. Since he had left no heirs, a new period of dynastic struggle ensued. The Vandals took advantage of the unrest and sailed up to Rome, which they plundered in 455.

The instability caused by usurpers throughout the Western Empire helped these tribes in their conquests, and by the 450s the Germanic tribes had become usurpers themselves. During the next twenty years, several Western emperors continued to be installed, but their authority relied upon barbarian commanders. Petronius Maximus, the Western emperor upon the death of Felix, was promptly murdered by Ricimer, a German commander. Ricimer appointed Majoran I as emperor, but subsequently deposed and executed him. At a whim, Ricimer would make and unmake several more emperors of the Western Empire. Chaos ensued as he did so. Although Majoran had secured northern Italy and added a new layer of frontier defenses, Gaul had all but fallen. A rump state of the Western Roman authority was still clinging to existence in the provinces there, but had only been established by an independent rebel against Ricimer who refused to recognize his authority.

By 473 A.D. Ricimer was dead and Julius Nepos, a commander fresh from Pannonia, secured by arms the throne of the West. His reign lasted until 493, when he died and a new period of danger arose for the crumbling Roman nation.