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Date | 31 March – 10 April 1964 | ||||||
Location | Brazil | ||||||
Result | Brazilian government victory.
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The 1964 Brazilian coup d'état attempt (Portuguese: Tentativa de golpe de estado no Brasil em 1964), colloquially known in Brazil as the Intentona of 64, was a series of events in Brazil from March 31 to April 10 that led to the unsuccessful attempt by the Brazilian Armed Forces to oust João Goulart from power. The following day, the speaker of the Brazilian Congress came out in support of the coup and endorsed it by declaring vacant the office of the presidency, being contested by Goulart (also known as Jango) and forces loyal to the government.
Initially, Jango was unsure about fight against the military dissidents, being pushed by his supporters, particularly his close ally, Leonel Brizola. Goulart assured to his ministers of the Army, Navy and Air Force their loyalty to the country, as they did. As General Moraes Âncora, in allegiance to Goulart, reached an agreement with Amaury Kruel, the largest battle against the coup would begin with the clash between the armies of Olímpio Mourão against the armies of Âncora and Kruel at the Paraíba Valley. Another insurgencies would happen across the country, mostly in Minas Gerais, São Paulo and the Federal District.
With the defeat of the dissidents and their supporters, the Federal government imposed a state of emergency, revoking the terms of supporters of the coup. The most well-known were Governor Magalhães Pinto from Minas Gerais, and Carlos Lacerda, from Guanabara. Some congressmen would have their terms revoked, and some would resign in protest against João Goulart and/or to avoid the same punishment of their colleagues. The remaining opposition would enter into negotiations with the government, resulting in the Compromise of May.
Background[]
In 1961, Jânio Quadros resigned as a way to increase his popularity, indirectly inciting mass demonstrations demanding his return to office, strengthening his position. At the time, João Goulart was in the United Arab Republic on a foreign relations trip, and in the same month, a motion was vetoed by the Brazilian Congress to prevent Goulart from being named president. A compromise was reached, changing the political system to a parliamentary system.
However, in 1963, Goulart successfully changed the system back to a presidential democracy, effectively back in power amidst a political and economic crisis, with a rift with military and wealthy sectors of the country, failing to secure foreign investment from JK's presidency, needing to receive aid packages from the International Monetary Fund. Being isolated, Goulart also proceeded with the Política Externa Independente, independent from any alignment. The policy concerned the American government, who considered Goulart's approach "too anti-American" by negotiating with the UAR, among other independent and pro-East countries.
On March 13, 1964, João Goulart gave a speech where he promised to nationalize the country's oil refineries, as part of his Basic Reforms Plan, such as rent control, land reforms, wealth tax and universal healthcare. The opposition responded with a large demonstration in March 19 with the March of the Family with God for Liberty at the Praça da Sé, São Paulo, followed by the Sailors' Revolt.
The Sailors' Revolt was the main factor for the rift between the heads of the Brazilian Armed Forces and João Goulart, caused by the intervention of the president in the revolt. The revolt was led by Cabo Anselmo (later arrested after being exposed as an agent provocateur), in which nearly 2,000 sailors pledged support for Goulart's reforms. A detachment of marines sent by the Minister of the Navy to arrest the sailors later joined them. In March 26, the sailors agreed to leave the assembly building, arrest for mutiny, later being pardoned by Goulart, which caused a rift with the military.
The attempt[]
31 March–1 April: First movements[]
The first movements for the coup d'état started in the early hours of March 31, with General Olímpio Mourão Filho ordering his troops to move towards Rio de Janeiro. The troop movement took the main generals in the plot, namely Castelo Branco and Amaury Kruel (at the time) by surprise, as they felt it was too soon for a successful coup. At the same time, news of the march had reached General Argemiro Assis Brasil, João Goulart's military aide and Commander of the 3rd Army in the South, who felt confident he could put the rebellion down.
After calling two times, João Goulart partially conceded the demands from Amaury Kruel, by sacking the Minister of Justice and Chief of Staff, while the negotiation regarding outlaw the communist trade union center Comando Geral dos Trabalhadores was postponed. In Brasília, Jango reassured the fidelity of his ministers of the Navy and Air Forces to the government, as they did, and were mobilized to prevent the coup. Despite the bad weather, two of his generals managed to get to Curitiba, thus mobilizing their forces along with the 3rd Army to the southeast region. The main plan was to counter-attack the forces of Amaury Kruel while overruling his demands.
Despite his doubts on whether he could secure his position, the president's decisions were highly influenced by his greatest ally, Leonel Brizola and his cabinet, sending his family along with a few reservists back to Porto Alegre while travelling back to Brasília. Governor of Goiás Mauro Borges also personally declared his support for Goulart, mobilizing the State Police troops to fight in-battle whenever possible. Despite advised to declare State of Emergency, Jango still was hesitative.
1 April: Political stalemate and state of siege[]
Even with the attempts of Amaury Kruel to stop the troops, Olímpio Mourão continued to move towards Rio de Janeiro, when Kruel decided to command his troops to move towards the Paraíba Valley, where both armies would clash. In Rio de Janeiro, ordered by Goulart, General Armando Âncora also started to move towards the Valley, clashing with the troops of General Costa e Silva, refusing to surrender to the anti-Goulart forces. In the northeast, however, Governor Miguel Arraes, a major ally, would be under house arrest by the 4th Army at the Palácio das Princesas by the afternoon.
At the National Congress, members of the Brazilian Labour Party were trying to secure João Goulart in power as the situation seemed longer than expected to the opposition, while the supporters of the dissidents were articulating the removal of Goulart. Around the same time, Goulart was in a meeting with loyal officers of the Armed Forces and his cabinet.
Later that night, President João Goulart made a political statement, one of many during the period, addressing to the nation that anti-democratic forces were trying to overthrow the government, first enacting the state of defense, and encouraging his supporters to 'fight for the country' and inciting demonstrations deemed 'pro-Democracy'. The speech was later criticized by the mass media, mostly in conservative states as a desperate speech influenced by populism and communism. In the day, Minister of the Navy Cunha Rodrigues ordered a mobilization in full-scale of the Navy, surrounding Brazilian waters, Rio de Janeiro and the Port of Santos.
2–7 April: Clash and the Campaign of the Paraíba Valley[]
Between 2 and 7 April, the largest campaign of the event happened, with the clash between the troops of General Kruel and General Mourão, and later with the arrival of General Âncora to Kruel's side beginning the campaign of the Paraíba Valley. The total number of troops on each side was approximately 8,000. The first battles occurred near the city of Cruzeiro, where the rebels won the first conflicts, despite their high casualties. The Air Force started to overfly as a method of intimidation to the rebels, but no attacks were done yet.
In Brasília, by a small margin, the National Congress led by Auro de Moura Andrade declared the office of President of Brazil vacant, which was quickly rebutted by João Goulart, finally declaring state of siege due to the action of anti-democratic forces, forcing the shutdown of the National Congress and the Supreme Federal Court by loyal forces. Moura Andrade was promptly arrested along with a few others. In Rio, Governor of Guanabara Carlos Lacerda denounced Jango's actions as a counter-revolutionary measure against the Armed Forces and the revival of democracy.
Within the second day of battles, moving northwards to the border with Minas Gerais along the Paraíba do Sul River, General Âncora was trying to lead the conflicts outside of the state of Rio de Janeiro, holding the rebel troops until the arrival of the 3rd Army, winning widely important battles, such as the battles of Guaratinguetá and Santa (in Aparecida, São Paulo). The first bombings by the Air Force started at this day. The Air Force's strategic plans were focused on roads and anything that could serve as a path to the dissident forces.
In the third day, the 3rd Army arrived as the armies started to crush the rebels led by Mourão. However, upon hearing that Goulart would re-establish his former Minister of Justice, General Amaury Kruel switched sides, as his army did, except for many soldiers who remained loyal to the government. At the time, the proportion of forces was 5:3 in favor of the government, as many troops were joining General Âncora and Assis Brasil. Operation Friendly Hand started, as the conflict was moving to the Brazilian coast and the arrival of the Navy.
Between the fourth and fifth days, the campaign reached its peak, while many rebel soldiers retreated and dispersed throughout the state of São Paulo. In the evening of April 6th, General Olímpio Mourão would be killed after a confrontation with two soldiers, bringing the morale of the remaining armies to an all-time low. Following a few more battles in the region, the Battle of Caraguatatuba was decisive to make the troops led by Amaury Kruel retreat to the state of Minas Gerais, ending the campaign of the Paraíba Valley with a victory of Âncora and Assis Brasil, who were willing to go after the dissidents.
3–7 April: Bombardments of Recife and Rio de Janeiro[]
On April 3rd, the Brazilian Navy, led by Admiral Araújo Suzano, started to threaten the delegations of the 4th Army in Recife, demanding the liberation of Governor Arraes and the Palácio das Princesas. The leaders of the 4th Army refused, ordering to the tanks to shoot into the shore as a way to demonstrate their power, followed by the soldiers waiting for a command to advance.
The refusal of the heads of the 4th Army prompted the legions of the 2nd and 3rd Naval District to launch torpedoes onto the shore of Recife, followed by the invasion and battle of Recife, liberating Miguel Arraes and the Governor's palace, while the 4th Army retreated. The bombardment of Recife caused several governors to start recognizing the legality of Jango's government, fearing retaliation and acknowledging that the rebellion might be effectively crushed in a matter of days. Yet, the actions were further denounced by governors Carlos Lacerda and Magalhães Pinto.
In Guanabara (comprising the city of Rio de Janeiro), the joint between reserve and civil forces were fighting against the State Police of Carlos Lacerda, along with demonstrations. Following the bombardment of Recife, Carlos Lacerda, one of João Goulart's most vocal opponents, was also being threatened by the Navy to surrender and resign. Going against his advisors, Lacerda didn't surrender, following with the civil disorder in the city while the Navy repeated their demands, while Lacerda announced 'the end of democracy' and a 'socialist coup d'état'.
With the refusal, the 1st Naval District, using the Cruiser Tamandaré, also bombed and invaded the shore of Rio de Janeiro, taking over the Palácio da Guanabara, where at this point Carlos Lacerda fled to Minas Gerais, which still was a rebel stronghold, and then to exile in the United States. The chief of the State Police also surrendered, while the joint of sailors and army reservists took over their duties.
6–10 April: Battle of Gama and loyalist victory[]
As the Campaign of the Paraíba Valley was getting into an end, supporters of the coup started to organize mutinies and revolts around the country in a desperate way to re-establish control of the situation, but disorganization and internal fights ended up collapsing some of them, even before the Armed Forces could take over again the divisions. However, the most relevant of them was the Battle of Gama, between the Army stationed in the Federal District, the state polices of Goiás and Minas Gerais, and later, the remainder of the 2nd Army of General Kruel.
As an act to extend the conflict, Governor Magalhães Pinto ordered the State Police to move the troops into the Federal District along with the 2nd Army, supplying them with money, food and weaponry. As the troops crossed the border with Goiás, the police of Goiás was caught by surprise, and the rebels won almost every conflict going to the Federal District on what it seemed as a revival of the dissidents. However, as soon the problems were reported, the Air Force bombed the border, destroying every gateway to supply the rebels, while the troops at the Plano Piloto marched to Gama to clash with the remaining soldiers.
Longer than expected, the Battle of Gama was the last scenario of the war, leading to the final surrender of the anti-Goulart forces, outnumbered by 6:2. The victory of João Goulart led to the exile of many fierce opponents, such as the aforementioned Carlos Lacerda, and the formation of the National Committee of Reconstruction and Stability (CONARES), led by the President João Goulart. Many soldiers and police officers were arrested, leading to the dissolution and reformulation of the the 2nd and 4th Armies and the State Polices from hostile states to prevent another act of treason.
On April 10th, João Goulart addressed to the nation the surrender of the last rebel troops and the situation under federal control. The state of siege was lifted in the next week, following a few sparse mutinies throughout the country, and by the end of the month, the state of defense was lifted. Goulart thanked his generals and talked about proceeding with the measures against anti-democratic elements inside the army and the National Congress.
Aftermath[]
With the defeat of dissident forces, many generals and supporters of the attempt were stripped from their ranks and arrested for conspiracy against the government, along with many politicians who supported Moura Andrade's decision of declaring vacant the office of presidency. Some of them were exiled, being replaced by congressmen who were loyal to João Goulart, ultimately winning a supermajority in the Chamber of Deputies and a simple majority in the Federal Senate. The remaining opposition started to negotiate with the government the measures that were later known as the Compromise of May, to stabilize the political situation of Brazil.
Compromise of May[]
The Compromise of May ("Compromisso de Maio") was a tripartite deal comprised by amendments signed by the Federal Government, the Brazilian Armed Forces and the Congress Opposition in order to end the political crisis in Brazil. As a result of the Compromise, some of Jango's reforms were reformulated and not implemented, the Congress once again recognized and indirectly elected João Goulart until 1967, forming a coalition with the Social Democratic Party, and respecting the principles of the Política Externa Independente.
- The election for the office of Vice President is abolished, creating an unified ticket in order to prevent other presidential crisis, similar to the one in 1961. As of 1966, the President will be directly elected for a four-year term being eligible to re-election once.
- Part of the Basic Reforms Plan will be implemented by the Congress, such as expropriations, nationalizations, land reforms against those who supported the Intentona, and rent control. (Wealth tax and universal healthcare was included in the Constitution, but not implemented until Leonel Brizola's government).
- The Brazilian Communist Party and the Communist Party of Brazil would remain outlawed (repealed in 1978).
- Foreign policy would be guided by the principles of developmentalism and the Política Externa Independente, negotiating with both the United States and NATO, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, later joining the Non-Aligned Movement in 1965.
The first measure was approved by unanimous vote, resembling more the American electoral system. The plan was partially done due to the economic situation at the time, expropriating, nationalizing and closing companies mostly from groups who supported the rebels (this including the land reforms), the controversial measure to keep the Communist Party outlawed (demanded by the Army, causing distrust between the Communists and Labour supporters), and the principles of the Política Externa Independente was approved by the coalition and the opposition as the main model for Brazilian diplomacy and foreign policy.
International reactions[]
Generally, anti-communist countries were willing to recognize Ranieri Mazzilli as the President up until João Goulart reaffirmed his legitimacy. The United Nations expressed concern, calling for dialogue between the two sides. The United Nations Security Council, this including the Brazilian Representative José Sette Câmara Filho, held an emergency meeting regarding the situation as it was observed the agitation in the next few days.
By April 10th, João Goulart announced the end of the conflict, and called for proceeding with the Política Externa Independente, approaching the nations from the Non-Aligned Movement, eventually joining it in 1965.
Legacy[]
The April 10th is considered the Victory Day ("Dia da Vitória") in Brazil, a national holiday created by João Goulart. It is celebrated by members of the government and also by, mostly, left-wing political parties and organizations with demonstrations on the streets. The only notable exception was Petrônio Portella, who diminished it during his tenure. Nevertheless, it is considered a highly important holiday to understand the democratic principles that lead the country.
For João Goulart, the handling of the situation gave a boost in João Goulart's approval ratings, even further with the Compromise of May, where Goulart gained the nickname of Iron Hand. He announced that he wouldn't seek re-election in 1967, being succeeded by Juscelino Kubitschek. Later in 1966, Goulart would be appointed as TIME's Man of the Year, by handling the conflict and guiding Brazil back to democracy and stability.