| Apollonia I Molivesti | |
|---|---|
| Emperess and Autocrat of the Romans Queen of Iberia
| |
| |
| Coronation portrait by the Austrian painter Adolphous Weisman, c. 1677. | |
| Empress of the Byzantine Empire | |
| Reign | February 26, 1677 - December 23, 1726 |
| Coronation | April 22, 1677 |
| Predecessor | (As Empress proper) Paulina II (As Emperor-regent) Constantine XV |
| Successor | Angelos I |
| Queen of Iberia | |
| Reign | July 6, 1717 - December 23, 1726 |
| Coronation | June 24, 1718 |
| Predecessor | Charles I |
| Successor | Angelos I |
| Born | February 26, 1662 Alexandros Palace, Macedonia, Byzantine Empire |
| Died | December 23, 1726 Imperial Roman Palace, Rome, Byzantine Empire |
| Burial | January 4, 1727 Hagio Pneva, Rome, Byzantine Empire |
| Issue | Theodoros, Exarch of Sicily Demetrios, Despot of Cherssenon Angelos I Molivesti Theodora Molivesti III Anna Molivesti II Stefanos Molivesti Chrysanthos Molivesti Alexandra Molivesti VII Konstantine Molivesti III. |
| House | House of Molivesti |
| Father | Constantine XV |
| Mother | Paulina II |
| Religion | Eastern Orthodox |
| Occupation | Author |
| Signature | 
|
Apollonia I Molivesti (Greek: Απολλωνία I), also known as Apollonia the Great (I Apollonía o Mégas), or the Sun Empress (San Basillisa) was Byzantine/Roman Emperor who ruled from 1677 to her death in 1726. Her reign is remembered for its sheer success; by the end of her reign, the size of the empire had multiplied by several times, encompassing Italy, much of the Caucasus, the massive Iberian Empire, and much of the Middle East and Eastern Africa. Her reign is also remembered for religious and ethnic intolerance within the Byzantine Empire as well, with massive genocides against the Catholics.
Apollonia was born to Empress Paulina II on February 26, 1662 in a Macedonian palace. She was raised in Byzantine Cherssenon for much of her youth following her mother's death (her father ruled as Emperor-regent in her absence). At age 15, she officially became the ruler of the Byzantine Empire. The beginning of her reign was marked by the Byzantine Empire's reentry into the Eighty Years War, following their exit from the massive convoluted conflict under her father. The reentry is notable for the event that defines the empress in popular culture: the reconquest of Rome. The Byzantine Empire moved its capital to the lost capital, and Apollonia received widespread praise for the reconquest.
In addition to Rome, various conquests were made in Iberia, the Columbias, Africa, the Middle East, and much of the rest of Europe. By the end of her reign in 1726, the empire stretched from Patagonia in Columbia to the Indian city of Dacca in the east, and from Somalia to Slovakia.
During and since her reign, Apollonia received widespread praise by numerous historians for her eventful reign, particularly amongst Greek Byzantines. Her reign has often been romanticized as a "Byzantine Renaissance," where the empire retrieved its glory from the Pax Romana. In recent years, this image has been called into reviewed in history, who note the state-sponsored pseudo-genocide of Muslims, Catholics, and other religious minorities under the reign of the religiously intolerant empress.
Early Life[]
Apollonia Molivesti was born on 7:35 am on February 26, 1677, in Alexandros Palace in the Theme of Macedonia. She was the second child and daughter of Paulina II, empress of the Byzantine Empire. She was baptized in the chapel of Alexandros Palace, with the Despotess of Morea, Daimine III, being declared her godmother. Daimine however soon died and her Crimean spouse, Emil Mamashev, became her godfather.
On October 6, 1662, Paulina gave birth to another baby, Helena. The complications from ths birth ultimately resulted in her death three days later. This meant that the crown passed to the seven-month old Apollonia. As she was too stuck in he youth to rule, she was technically empress but had no real control. In theory, Constantine XV, her father, was to rule as emperor-regent of the empire, however, as he was crushing a minor revolt in the Middle East, the power was in actuality in control of a court interest: Stephanos Kantakouzenos, the naval advisor of the now deceased Paulina II. He took over and effectively became the ruler of Byzantium and actually managed the empire while Constantine XV was absent.
On April 6, 1663, Constantine returned to Constantinople, demanding that Kantakouzenos relinquish his control. His demands were met with insults from Kantakouzenos, at which point, Constantine stormed the palace and detained the now disgraced former naval advisor. He was hanged on June 4 on charges of treason and usurping.
"Apollonia on horseback in Zappharozia", by John Alexios.
Constantine was greatly involved in the reorganization of the palace following nearly half a year of decay. His deep involvement in this diverted away attention from Apollonia. To make up for this, Constantine made the decision to send Apollonia to Cherssenon. The empress disembarked in Kaffa on July 31, 1663, before sailing up the Dnieper river and arriving in the Pontic Steppe, where she was accepted by the clan of her own godfather, Emil Mamashev. At her arrival, she was offered numerous tributes by the Crimean Tartars, who swiftly welcomed her into their clan.
Apollonia spent the next 14 years in the Pontic Steppe, being raised by the Crimean Tartars. She learned the local language, received schooling from Tartar tutors, and prepared for life as empress.
Portrait of Apollonia and Anthasia Laloudios, by Jónás Norbert, c. 1672. Apollonia is on the left while Laloudios is on the right.
In 1671, Apollonia met Anthasia Laloudios, a Pontic-Crimean girl who would later become one of her closest friends and advisors. Her family through her mother's side immigrated to Crimea as part of the Kinsi in Cherssenon. In 1674, her family assaulted Apollonia's clan near Zaporizhzhia. The family had been evicted from the settlement of Synia and had thus fled further north for land. They had spotted land and come to settle there. However, the clan was on that territory, and they fired upon the clan. The clan shot Laloudios' parents dead. When they realized who they had shot, Laloudios wept. She went insane and had to be left behind in Ticyphon. Apollonia wrote about this in her first journal that would later make up The Apollonian Journals, stating that:
"Her face was as red as blood; tears rushed out her eyes. Our fellow Tartars comforted her, but she pushed them away, and ran to a nearby stream. I followed her there, clearly aware that she was going mad. I dipped my leg into the clear water, reached for her, at which point she turns and yells at me, blurting out nonsense that I killed her parents. I attempted to explain what occurred, however, she let her emotions overcome her, hit me, and ran away into the fields of the Ukraine. Tartars chased her, while I was in agony due to the pain. Then, a Tartar yells at me and helps me onto his horse, where we galloped with our fellow Crimeans throughout the vast and empty Crimean Steppe."
In 1676, her clan participated in a raid against Muscovy, causing an international incident between the two. The raid was a failure, and Apollonia was taken captive by the Muscovite army. After a settlement brought between the two countries occurred, Apollonia was returned, humiliated. A common myth circulated in late 19th century Muscovy as relations between Byzantium and Muscovy deteriorated was that Apollonia was brought to the Muscovite court and that the Grand Prince looked at the empress, and in disbelief, asked if this was the Empress of the Romans, to which she replied yes, and at which, the Grand Prince set his foot upon her head to symbolize dominance as Apollonia begged for mercy. This has been debunked by historians. Records of this only appeared in the late 19th century, likely initially spreading through word of mouth.
Return to the Throne[]
Painting of Apollonia painted a few months prior to her departure to Crimea, by an unknown author.
Under the principle of Andronikoid Succession, one could only be official if they were 15 or older. Apollonia turned 15 on February 26, 1677. "I said goodbye to my Tartar friends," she wrote in her journal. "I wished them a good life and they did the same for me as I waved from the vessel departing Kaffa."
Apollonia arrived in Constantinople in the afternoon of April 19. She was coronated empress in the Hagia Sophia on the 23 and arrived at the Great Palace of Constantinople shortly afterwards. In a speech read to the Byzantine Court and Senate, she stated that "As I know my heart to be entirely Roman, I can very sincerely assure you there is not anything you can expect or desire from me which I shall not be ready to do for the happiness and prosperity of this great empire."
The first few days of Apollonia's reign was marked by a massive shifting in advisors as old advisors were booted from her court and replaced by new ones. This was highly controversial as power was shifted through these realignments. The old members of the court were very bitter about this, with many vowing revenge.
Marriage[]
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Christophoros II, Despot of Pontus, Apollonia's husband.
A visit by the Wallachian Nelu Martinescu in May of 1677 sparked rumors of a potential message between the two. Rumors claimed that Nelu had courted Apollonia, however, these allegations were frivolously denied by both sides. Nevertheless, due to the rumors, Nelu was temporarily dismissed from the Byzantine court.
The incident sparked Apollonia to be interested in a marriage and she sent Mandator Nikolas Andreadallos to search for "a bride worthy to be in union with the leader of the civilized world." From July 1677 to June 1678, Andreadallos toured the courts of Europe, looking for a bride for her empress. After nearly a year of absence, he returned to the Imperial Palace, bringing Nikolay Nikitovich, a Muscovite prince, to Apollonia. When Apollonia gazed upon him, she scoffed. "He has been scarred by smallpox and has been afflicted with coughing and a wicked, elderly look. There shall be no reason, emotional or diplomatic, that I should marry this animal-like being." He rejected Nikolay and ordered Andreadallos to search for a suitable bride internally.
While Andreadallos was touring the empire, the Despot of Pontus, Christophoros II ( born January 27 1656) , the imperial court with the intention of paying off debts to members of the court on October 16, 1678. According to Apollonia, she was courted by Christophoros outside the court, seducing her. Historians have claimed that he was seeking marriage with the empress to deter political opponents in Pontus rumored to be conspiring against him with the force of the central authority. Sighting of Christophoros' suspicious activity with the empress sparked rumors of a potential marriage between the two. A court interest named Paternos Vatatzes, who served as Secretary of Internal Affairs, accused Apollonia of having pre-marital sex with Christophoros and attempted to get the Byzantine Senate to delegitimize her.
The Senate believed the accusations and on February 17, 1679, ultimately declared the Byzantine Throne vacant. The throne was to be passed to Apollonia's uncle, Boethios of Tours, who had inherited land in southern France. Controversy ensued as many feared the diplomatic repercussions of the Emperor holding lands in a foreign nation. However, when Paternos Vatatzes was demanding that he be crowned emperor, trust in his allegations collapsed and he was famously kicked out of the Senatorial building afterwards. At that time, members of the Imperial Guard stormed the building, taking him captive and bringing him to Apollonia, who taunted the disgraced secretary before ultimately ordering his imprisonment.
A few days later on March 6, Andreadallos arrived in the imperial court, bringing Eugenios Krasas, the second son of Alexios, Despot of Sinope. Apollonia deemed Christophoros more attractive but chose Eugenios to deter lingering rumors of pre-marital affairs with the former. When Christophoros heard of this, he burst into pure rage.
On March 8, Eugenios was found dead on the bottom of a flight of stairs with a broken accident. It was officially ruled as an accident, however, rumors circulated swiftly that Christophoros had assassinated him for being selected as Apollonia's bride. Modern historical analysis of his character and medical analysis of Eugenios' buried body has led to the conclusion by many historians that Christophoros was responsible for his death. Apollonia denied claims of assassination but regardless dismissed Christophoros from the court.
Zoomed in portion of a fresco in the Hagia Sophia.
On April 8, the Megalos Pliroforitis, Nikomedes Korkoas, announced that Apollonia and Christophoros would enter into union between each other. The response was mixed, with many congratulating the empress and her bride and others regurgitating rumors about the two. Apollonia and Christophoros were married in the Hagia Sophia on the 30th of September. Their marriage was overseen by Bishop Armenios Lampinos. Within half of a year of marrige, Apollonia was pregnant and gave birth to Theodoros, Exarch of Sicily. From 1681 to 1694, Apollonia mothered eight children.
Those were:
Theodoros, Exarch of Sicily , born on the 22nd of January 1681, died on the 29th of September 1716, before his mother.
Demetrios, Despot of Cherssenon, born on the 7th of December 1681 , died on the 25th of May 1708, before his mother
Angelos on the 29th of November 1682, died on the 7th of October 1753, aged 70: succeeded his mother as emperor
Theodora, born on January 26th 1684, died on February 21st 1689, aged 5.
Anna, born on February 5th, 1685, died on the 29th of June 1751.
Stefanos, born on December 22nd 1688, died on May 7th, 1695, aged 6.
Chrysanthos, born on the 30th of November 1689, died on the 1st of May 1750.
Alexandra, born on the 5th of March 1692, died on October 20th, 1708
Konstantine, born on November 23rd 1694, died on April 17th 1776.
Control over the Nobility[]
The nobility under the thematic reforms of Simeon I, had enjoyed a great degree of independence from the central government. With Simeon's reforms, themes became to be viewed more as the property of the despots that ruled them, rather than land of the Byzantine Crown. This greatly weakened Byzantine central authority and also meant that the Byzantine emperor was subject to every affair that the nobility was involved in, always backing it since the nobles had so much leverage and practically controlled what the crown could and could not do.
By the time Apollonia took power in 1677, the nobles, had begun to effectively run many of the core functions the empire in place of the crown, much to the empress' dismay. She bemoaned the influence of the Byzantine nobility, writing in a letter to Christophoros in December of 1679 that "the nobility of this country have disrespected our great Roman imperial tradition in favor for the pursuit of needless power and greed. They are acting as parasites upon the empire, and their privileges that former basileus' have granted them must be curtailed."
In the Imperial Diet of April 1680, the nobility, clergy, and the towns & merchants were summoned to the Hall of Sculptures. The primary talking point of the diet soon devolved to the issue of the power of the nobility. The nobles claimed that the emperor had granted them all their power and that now the crown is facing the consequences. The diet escalated, ultimately leading to the nobility leaving the diet.
Apollonia claimed that the nobility were acting in open revolt and began building alliances with the clergy, towns & merchants. Around this time, Anthasia Laloudios arrived in Constantinople, meeting with Apollonia for the first time since the incident that occurred between her and Apollonia's clan in 1671. Through her, connections, Apollonia was able to reaffirm the loyalty nobility of Greece and Cherssenon and build alliances with them. On September 16, 1680, Apollonia gave the nobility of Byzantium an ultimatum, giving the Byzantine nobility two options: relinquish all the power they had gained in the past half a century and be sparred or don't and be destroyed. The allied nobles and much of the Balkan nobility complied, however, the majority of the nobles refused. On November 26, pro-Apollonia forces and pro-nobility forces met at the Battle of Dorylaeum. The pro-Apollonia forces were defeated.
Engraving of the Battle of Belekoma.
The nobles proceeded to march on the Constantinople, however, while en route, they were ambushed by members of the Byzantine army still loyal to Apollonia on December 14 at the Battle of Belekoma, a crushing defeat for the nobility and effectively ending their revolt.
Following the battle in the May 1681 Imperial Diet, the towns and merchants, the nobility, and the clergy congregated. The nobility agreed to cede much of their privileges to the state on the promise that for the next hundred years, the crown could not infringe on their rights any further. Apollonia accepted.
Senatorial Reforms and Abolition[]
The nobility wielded greater leverage with the central government in Constantinople, culminating in 1660, when Paulina I was forced to sign the Chrysobull of 1660, which stated that all heirs to the Byzantine throne would have to once again be confirmed by the senate, reinstating a rule which had been phased out by Emperor Andronikos III. Additionally, the chrysobull also abolished the ancient Roman tradition that members of the senate needed to be a magistrate to become senator, and replaced it with a rule stating that the position of senator was acquired through the appointment of nobles to the title.
As part of the 1681 Imperial Diet, all senators of nobility, save for those who met the pre-1660 requirements, were to leave the senate and be replaced by magistrates. The senate still wielded a large portion of power over the Byzantine Empire, with heirs still having to be confirmed by them and with certain laws having to undergo approval by the senate. This had reduced the importance of the crown while strengthening the senate.
Absolutism was becoming a popular ideology amongst the rulers of Byzantium and Apollonia was a major proponent of it. "The leader of the civilized world must not have her powers curtailed by lesser interests,: she wrote in one of her journals. With the nobility dealt with, she turned her focus on the Senate. On May 21, 1682, the Chrysobull of 1683 was issued. The chrysobull revoked the privileges granted by the Chrysobull of 1660, often seen as the end of the Restoration of the Senate. On April 14, 1683, a group of 7 senators, Panos Petras, Giannis Valides, Alekos Mulas, Nikos Maniatou, Sakis Thanilis, Apollon Primiadis, and Pericles Mutakis nailed The 40 Greviences against the Emperess and Autocratess of the Empire of the Romans. In it contained 40 grievances against the empress, primarily centered around the reduction of senatorial powers. On April 23, Apollonia invited what became known as the Κωνσταντινούποληeπτά (Konstantinoapoliepta, English: Constantine Seven). By then they had grown more radical, and accused Apollonia of being a tyrant. They were expelled from her court. The ideas of the Konstantinoapoliepta spread and they amassed a large following amongst the senate and many nobles who still bemoaned about their loss of power following the Imperial Diet of 1681. On May 24, the senate demanded that they had their former powers returned to them, and in response, Apollonia made a bold action: she had all senators arrested for treason and threatened to have them executed and the senate, which had existed since the establishment of the city of Rome for up to that point 2436 years, abolished if they did not "reafirm their loyalty." This rocked the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Konstantinoapoliepta, seeing the tyranny of the empress, famously refused to reaffirm their loyalty and chose to die. They were executed on June 1, much to the anger of the subjects of Byzantium.
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The Constantinople Massacre in a 1684 French engraving.
The following day, a large mob approached the Imperial Palace, but were brutally killed in what became known as the Constantinople Massacre. The exact number killed is disputed, but between 1,000 to 3,000 people were killed. This only emboldened the resistance against the empire. Conspiracies began to be made against her. With he reign in jeopardy, Apollonia, now understanding the consequences of the action, attempted to mediate and cede power. However, the line had been crossed and no compromise would make up for it. Apollonia desperately looked to distract them, and after a few revolts and uprisings, she settled on her goal: war, but not just any war.
Eighty Years War[]
Beginning in 1608, Europe had descended into the chaos known as the Eighty Years War, with millions dead and many parts of Europe, particularly Central Europe, devastated. The central crux of the conflict revolved around the Holy Roman Empire, evolving from a religious conflict and into a political one. Tens of millions had perished during the conflict and despite initial winding downs in the 1650s and 1660s, the conflict was rekindled during the 1670s and currently, no end in sight was seen.
Constantine XIV commanding troops in the Eighty Years War.
The Byzantine Empire had entered the conflict between 1634 and 1661, beginning with Emperor Andreas II and ending with Paulina II. Since the resurgence of the conflict in the 1670s, there had been great clamor for a reentry into the conflict in the Byzantine Empire. In 1678, invading Frenchmen in Italy arrived in the Papal States, occupying the northern half of the Pope's territories. This had thrusted them into the war. Apollonia had taken great interest in this fact. She had considered joining the war, and this was enticed by the Papal entry into the conflict. This was because the Papacy was headed. With the Byzantines and Papacy still bitter over the 1053 East-West schism, capturing the seat of Rome would humiliate the Catholic faith and also bring all five patriarchs: the Patriarch of Constantinople, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, the Patriarch of Antioch, the Patriarch of Alexandria, and the Patriarch of Rome, under Byzantine rule. Furthermore, a conquest of Rome would of course signify Byzantine attempts to restore the original Roman Empire, which they vitriolically claimed that they were its rightful heirs and successors. Such a prestigious achievement would hopefully distract Apollonia's subjects from her tyrannical actions.
Byzantine control of Italy had been lost during the Jakabite Wars of the 16th century to first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Iberians through a royal marriage as HRE began to collapse during the Eighty Years War. During the first Byzantine entry into the war, Sicily and Apulia were recovered, however, the Iberians still held Corsica, and Sardinia and leered at the lost territories in peninsular Italy. With the acquisition of southern Italy, the Byzantine Empire now once again had direct border with the Papal States, which could be used as a launching ground to conquer Rome.
In the Treaty of Vidin on March 27, 1684, Apollonia made peace with the nobility, reducing central power to appease the nobility. following the treaty, preparation for war began. On January 27, 1685, the 300 thousand Byzantine soldiers congregated in Constantinople, marching up and down the city before boarding enormous transport vessels, setting sail for Constantinople. The grand army arrived in Neapolis on June 14, 1685. On June 18, on the eve of the invasion of Rome, the Empress and Autocrat of the Romans gave her troops her most famous speech:
"My grand subjects, we as the Romans, have been the strongest, most persistent, enduring, prestigious, impacting, and successful civilizations to have lived in the world. We have slumped and risen numerous times, undergoing eras of prosperity and periods of misery. We have battled and subdued every group of people from the savage fringes of Great Britain to the peaks of Persia. We have been molded and changed through different dynasties, rulers, and eras; however, we still are what we were on that faithful day on April 21, 753 BC: Romans. We still bear the old Roman Imperial Tradition, we still hold the historic Roman Senate, and we still bear large swathes of the original empire. We are not the "heirs of Romans," we are the Romans. However, an Empire of the Romans without Rome is like a Lion without its heart: a prestigious and powerful being but one that doesn't bear its core and will slowly decay without it.
Consider then, my brothers in arms, that in the following days, weeks, and months, that you be the ones responsible for undertaking Rome's primary mission for a millennium, the ones responsible for bringing Rome's greatest dream to life, the ones who will warn the descendant of the barbarians that chipped away at our empire all those years ago, and be the ones who restore the pentarchy. When our children ask what great deeds we did, you can tell them that you carried out our greatest achievement in a thousand years.
Nika!"
1685 - 1667: Siege of Rome.[]
At 9:00 AM on June 15, 1689, Byzantine forces crossed into the Papal States. Within a day, the Byzantine Army arrived at Rome and the Siege of Rome began. The Byzantines later learned however that the Papacy had been tipped off by traitorous nobles angry over Apollonia for their infringement upon their rights. They had prepared for the invasion. Additionally, the old Aurelian Walls of Rome were expanded upon due to their outdated nature and worries that the Byzantines would siege the city. A replacement had been built that was triple the size of the original walls. This made the siege of Rome a great challenge for the armies of the Byzantines.
The Byzantine siege of Rome.
Georgios Ypsilanti.
Apollonia has assigned General Georgios Ypsilanti to command the siege effort. Byzantine cannons fired at the walls of Rome, however, the new walls proved to be very durable, and the Byzantines were suffering heavy losses from Papal bombardment. On October 8, 1685, Ypsilanti ordered his troops to dig in to avoid enemy fire. With the siege at a standstill, , on April 10, 1686, he ordered some of his men to dig in further, burrowing under key parts of the walls and setting up bombs under them. These were later intercepted by the Papal forces however and defused.
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Battle of Rome, 1686.
On the June 7, 1686, a force of 14,000 Iberians arrived at the city, and engaged in battle with the Byzantines. Pope Innocent XI had pleaded for aid from the Catholic world for aid, and the Iberians, well known for their devotion to the Catholic faith, became embroiled in the siege. Reinforcements arrived on June 11. On June 14, a combined force of Iberian and Papal troops numbering around 80 thousand met a Byzantine force of 120 thousand. They were ultimately defeated, and retreated into the city and territories further to the north.
On October 7, Ypsilanti ordered an assault onto the city, breaching the first lines of the fortifications of the city. The situation became dire for the Papal alliance. The Pope pleaded for aid from the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, his ally in the Eighty Years War, however, he himself was on the verge of losing to the Schmalkaldic League. On March 27, 1687, a second assault was ordered by Ypsilanti, however, they were repelled by the Papal alliance. On April 14, disease struck the Papal army, weakening them, and news reached Ypsilanti, who, on April 17, ordered one final assault in the city, and he was successful, breaking the Roman fortifications. The city was now open for conquest.
Entry of the Byzantine Army into Rome.
On April 21 (coincidentally, the same day that the city was founded), the city fell to the Byzantines. What followed was what historian George Davis considers to be "the most savage act of the Early Modern Era." The Byzantines, who had long held a grudge against the inhabitants of Rome for being catholic, obeying a rebellious patriarch, and "betraying the empire," the Roman Army sacked the city. The rift between the western and eastern churches exploded as the Eastern troops pillaged, looted, and burnt the city, killing tens of thousands of men, and raping every woman in sight. In many cases, children were not spared. The Pope attempted to flee, but was captured by Byzantine forces. Apollonia stated that he and the remaining inhabitants of the city would be spared under one condition: he would have to acknowledge that he was not just one leader of the Christian faith, but one of five. He initially refused, but after seeing the sheer destructive nature the Byzantines were delving into, he accepted. Rome had been recaptured and the pentarchy had been seized.
Soon afterwards, as a reward for his accomplishment, Apollonia awarded Ypsilanti with the first official Roman triumph in the city of Rome since the triumph warded by Narses by Emperor Justinian the Great in the autumn of 554. News reached Constantinople on the August 29, with a letter from Apollonia to Anthasia Laloudios, which read "The Church of Rome has fallen, and the empire's core has been restored." Celebrations ensued in Constantinople.
With the empire at war with Spain, the Byzantines decided to utilize this to retake Corsica and Sardinia. On March 7, 1687, a small force of 3,000 Byzantine troops arrived in Caralis in Sardinia. The entire island fell on March 25, 1687. Corsica fell too, however, with more resistance. On June 7, 1687, the Byzantines engaged in battle with the Iberians at the Battle of Bastia, resulting in a minor Byzantine defeat. In response, a force of 8,000 disembarked on the island and retook it on August 4.
1686 - 1691: Hungarian Campaigns and invasions of Bavaria[]
Capitalizing on the Byzantine siege of Rome, Austria re-entered the Eighty Years War, this time on the side of the Holy Roman Emperor. The flat Hungarian plain provided easy access for a Byzantine invasion into Austria and the southeastern HRE in general. It had been a goal of Holy Roman Emperors to either annex Hungary or have Hungary be a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and HRE, thus providing a defensive line at the Danube and Carpathians.
With Bavaria, the home of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI distracted, Austria, which was neutral at the time, attempted to invade Hungary. On April 16, 1686, a force of 25 thousand men invaded Byzantine Hungary, occupying much of Pannonia. With the Byzantines preoccupied in Italy, the Austrians were able to overrun the region. The city of Buda was captured with little resistance on November 18. Campaigns in Croatia were also able to marginally Slavonia under Austrian control.
Siege of Buda, by Constantine Palolos.
On January 14, 1687 the Austrians launched a campaign invading the Byzantine vassal state of Transylvania to the east of Byzantine Hungary. The Transylvanian prince, Michael III Albescu, would not give up so easily. He had raised a army of around 22 thousand men, consisting of Wallachian, Moldavian, and Transylvanian soldiers, and met the Austrians at the Battle of Oradea on the October 17. It was a decisive Austrian defeat. The Austrian army lost 75% of its size, while the Carpathian vassal states only lost around 15%. Moreover, with Rome falling, it meant that the empire could focus on the Austrian threat. A force of around 20 thousand Byzantines defeated the Austrians at Dunapentele on May 8, 1688. The city of Buda was put to siege soon afterwards and fell on July 4.
On March 29, 1689, the Byzantines invaded Austria, and put Vienna under siege by May 2. With the Holy League by now in full collapse, the city fell by August. The Byzantine invasion is often seen as the final nail in the coffin for the Holy League in the Eighty Years War and thus the concept of a fully unified Holy Roman Empire. A combined force including Byzantines, Frenchmen, and members of the Schmalkaldic League besieged the Bavarian capital of Munich between May 4, and December 6, 1690. The city fell, and the Holy League had lost.
In the Treaty of Trier in 1691, the Byzantines were granted the lands of the Papal States. With this, plus the Pope acknowledging the existence of the pentarchy, the future of the catholic faith appeared uncertain. However, in May of 1692, the French king, Alexander I, granted Cardinal Christophe Latulippe, a cardinal who proclaimed himself as the successor of Innocent XI and stylized himself as Pope Innocent XII, land in Avignon. The Avignon Papacy would last from 1692 to 1887, when the Italians reconquered Rome during the Muscovite-Byzantine War.
The Byzantine Empire following the Eighty Years War.
The Byzantines also demanded all of Austria and the dismantlement of Holy Roman Empire, which they saw as a faux attempt by the descendants of those who destroyed the Roman Empire to revive it, however, these were considered too demanding and the Byzantines only gained Slovenia. With the end of the conference on May 1, 1691, the Byzantine Empire now became the most powerful force in Europe.
Rome as Capital[]
Apollonia in 1691, shortly after the annexation of Rome, by Adolphous Weisman.
On September 7, 1691, in the wake of the signing of the Treaty of Trier that formally transferred the city of Rome to the Byzantines, Empress Apollonia issued the Chrysobull of 1691. The Chrysobull declared that the Imperial capital, imperial residence, the senatorial residence, and all other imperial government offices based in Constantinople be moved to the city of Rome. Rome, for the first time since 330 AD (1,361 years) was now once again the capital of the Roman Empire.
The Apostolic Palace, the residence of the Pope, was converted into the new Imperial Palace and the Curia Julia, one of the old Roman senate houses, was converted into a temporary residence for the Byzantine senate and Byzantine Kritai katholikoi. The governmental transition from Constantinople to Rome would last from 1691 to 1702. On September 16, St. Peters Basilica was converted to an Eastern Orthodox Cathedral, leaving the position of official papal basilica vacant until 1692.
On February 4, 1692, Apollonia called for the construction of a "grander and more prestigious palace in Rome, emblematic of this civilization's greatness." A contest was opened where plans were submitted, and Apollonia settled on the plans of the French architect Jean-Pierre Renaudin. Construction began on August 4. The palace would take 21 years to complete, finishing in 1713. Governmental buildings for the Senate and Kritai Katholikoi were finished in 1711 and 1723 respectively.
Due to the sack of Rome by the Byzantine Army, the city had been absolutely devastated, with much of the city in ruins and with the population cut down by at least 40%. In response, a reconstruction effort was launched on May 4, 1694. This reconstruction effort reconstructed the city of Rome, expanded upon it, and also launched the Ερευνα, or Evarna (meaning investigation). It was akin to the inquisitions of the Catholic Church and would be in charge of converting the inhabitants of Rome to Eastern Orthodoxy. Through missions, forceful confessions, and massacres, the Evarna would convert the city of Rome to Eastern Orthodoxy by Apollonia's death in 1726, though not without violence: 40,000 people would die in Rome alone from 1695 to 1725 from Byzantine efforts to convert the inhabitants of the city of Rome.
Gallery[]
Civil War[]
German Engraving of the Imperial diet of Rome, c. December 1693.
On April 7, 1693, the first Imperial Diet of the Byzantine Empire to be held in Rome occurred in the Sistine Chapel in the Apostolic Palace. Representatives of the nobility, clergy, and the towns & merchants congregated in the chapel. While initial applause came from the representatives from the reconquest of Rome, the mood swiftly turned as the nobles brought up concerns of their rights. The Byzantine nobility demanded more concessions from the Byzantine crown. Apollonia reminded them of what had occurred the last time they had attempted to do this. After the diet, the Despot of Thessaly, Adrianos Panagakos, was accused by Apollonia's Megas Doux, Theodoros Tassakis, of informing the Papal States of Byzantine plans to capture Rome. Panagakos frivolously denied the accusations, but Apollonia believed Tassakis, writing in her journals that "the Despot of Thessaly has been a rather questionable and suspicious figure, who appears to be on great terms with our enemies. This new revelation has not affected my perception of him." On July 7, Pangakos was stripped of his titles and brought to court.
This alarmed the nobility. Panagakos had opposed the Byzantine invasion of the Papal States, seeing it as an attempt by the empress to distract the nobility from the encroachment of their rights. Many saw this as the reason why he was framed, put on trial, and stripped of his titles. On October 2, a group of 3,000 nobles from the empire pleaded for the empress to let Pangakos go. The next day, he was found guilty and sentenced to public execution for treason. This enraged the nobility. Increased centralization efforts in 1694 through attempts to consolidate themes and staff them with nobles loyal to Apollonia was the final straw.
Flag of the League of Thessaloniki
On April 10, 1694, a noble named Alexios Barberides, who succeeded Panagakos as the Despot of Thessaly, rose up against the empress in what became known as Apollonia's Civil War. Within two months, much of the nobles of the Aegean had joined the cause, forming the League of Thessaloniki on June 23. Civil War was occurring in Byzantium.
The armies of the LOT met the forces of the Byzantine Army at the Battle of Čačak on August 17, and utterly destroyed the Byzantines, killing up to 30,000 men. With the battle, the forces of the nobility swiftly seized Serbia and the Balkans. Constantinople was besieged on September 8, however, the towns and merchants had allied with each other to form a militia to defend the city. Barberines sieged the city for an insufferable four months and on January 13, the city fell.
Following that, the Despot of Egypt declared independence from the empire and refused to trade with the empire, thus meaning that the empire lost its primary food source. A famine soon ensued and morale of troops began to decrease with inadequate meals. The Byzantine army saw a major defeat at the Battle of Sinope on February 28, 1695. Forces of General Titos Perrakos were besieging the rebel controlled city of Sinope when they were ambushed by noble forces. The battle lasted for three hours. 20 thousand loyalist forces were killed while the outnumbered nobles, lost 2 - 8 thousand. It appeared as if the nobles would win. However, the nobles had not yet embraced the wrath of Rome's greatest general of the day.
The Battle of Nicomedia.
On January 16th, Apollonia dispatched an army of 43 thousand men, commanded by Georgios Ypsilanti, to retake the city of Constantinople. The puny garrison of 3 thousand men proved no match and were swiftly defeated. Then, a small force of Stratioti were dispatched by Ypsilanti. These fast and mobile cavalrymen met the noble army at Sinope and ambushed them at night while they were sleeping, killing 3,000 men, before swiftly fleeing. The noble army pursued them. While this was occurring, Ypsilanti was moving his army across the Bosporus trait into Nicomedia. The Stratioti arrived in the city on April 13, and the Noble army ambushed them on the next day. At 6 am on April 15, the armies of Ypsilanti disembarked in Nicomedia and charged at the noble army at the Battle of Nicomedia. The battle lasted for four days, resulting in a deceive (but costly) Byzantine victory. The Byzantines lost 13 thousand men, while the Nobles lost 18 thousand out of their 38 thousand. From there on out, the revolt swiftly collapsed. The rebel army disintegrated soon after that. Sporadic skirmishes would occur for the next few months, but the noble revolt had been quelled. Barberines was sentenced to capital punishment on April 14.
Crushing of the Senate[]
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Portrait of Apollonia, c. 1694.
While numerous nobles revolted against the empress, others attempted to fight the empress through more secretive means. On April 17, 1694, a group of senators appealed to the empress to consider the ramifications of encroaching on the rights of the nobility. These were ignored. Apollonia began to become suspicious of the senate, as the noble senators had been long replaced. An investigation was launched and it was uncovered that these senators had been bribed by the Despot of Macedonia. Apollonia expelled them and replaced them with loyalists.
The senate was enraged. They sought to depose Apollonia once and for all. On May 7, the senate voted to depose the empress. The senators loyal to Apollonia were beaten to death in a violent confrontation. The senators rallied up the discontented catholic populous of Rome to attack the Apostolic Palace. On May 8, the palace was besieged. The populous called for Apollonia's abdication and the instillation of Nikitas Balakis, a senator. With this, Apollonia realized what this was. "The senate has always attempted to curtail the power of the emperor. They do not understand the fact that in this empire, the Emperor is the government." The latter phrase would become the empress's most famous saying. The Varangian Guard held the line, but as the days went on, the situation became dire. The Byzantine court appealed to Apollonia to flee the city. According to Apollonia, she responded by pointing to a portrait of Emperor Justinian I, reminding the court of the time when he was in an eerily similar predicament, but (under the advise of his wife) stayed.
The assault on the Apostolic Palace, by Ioannes Alexios.
Riots were erupting across the city, and many of the Byzantine construction projects that had commenced in Rome were torched. The Patriarch of Rome was slain and the mob reportedly chanted for Pope Innocent XII, who was living in Avignon as the de facto head of the Catholic Church, to come back. Apollonia became convinced through these incidents that the senate had promised the people of Rome independence from the Byzantines. "The senate of Rome has become an evil and rotten institution, swayed by greed and power. They would rather sell out the empire than lose any shred of power." On May 26, the mob broke in through the windows of the upper floors. Many were slaughtered by the Varangian Guard, however, they broke through and May 28. With the mob storming the building. Although Apollonia initially insisted on staying, with the mob breaking in, she ordered everyone in the court to leave, however, there was nowhere for them to go. They were forced to stay in the building and hope that he Varangian Guard repel the mob.
By the 29, the mob had fully entered the building, trashing and destroying much of the building. The Varangian Guard were ordered to guard the Imperial Apartments, the residence of the empress and the family, and the Raphael Rooms, the location of the Byzantine court. They were able to hold the line.
On July 2, Georgios Ypsilanti arrived in Rome with and army of 30 thousand men. Like flies, his army descended upon the palace. A force of 3 thousand entered the building and the fighting was brutal. In a desperate last attempt, members of the mob raided an armory in the city, carrying bombs and fusing them along the palace walls. At around 11:30 am on July 3, the bombs exploded. In the chaos, more than 3,000 people were killed and 6,000 were injured. The building became unstable, and people, including the Imperial family and Varangian Guard began to flee. At 11:40 am, another bomb was thrown directly at the center of the building, and exploded. The began to collapse. A stampede ensued which only worsened the situation. At around 12 pm, the building went into free-fall, and collapsed. Up to 11 thousand people died during the siege.
After the incident, it was revealed that Apollonia's oldest sons, Theodoros and Demetrios, had gone missing. A search occurred, and on July 13, their bodies were uncovered. They were deceased. When Apollonia learned about their fate, she apparently nearly fainted. She locked herself in her room and refused to talk to anyone for a full week and wept for most of that time. In her absence, Christophoros reigned as regent, and he ordered the arrest of every single senator. When Apollonia returned, she ordered every senator be executed for treason and issued the Chrysobull of 1694, which stated that the position of senator would be abolished, effectively abolishing the senate. On the golden seal implanted on the chrysobull, the phrase, Είμαι το κράτος, ("Eímai to krátos"), "I am the State". From this point on, Apollonia would fully embrace absolutism as her style of ruling., holding supreme autocratic authority and principally not being restricted by written laws, legislature, or customs.
With the Apostolic Palace in shambles, the Imperial Residence was moved to the Quirinal Palace.
Byzantine Inquisition and Genocide[]
1692 portrait pf Apollonia.
Apollonia was famous for her devolution to the Eastern Orthodox faith, often times to the point of pure religious zealotry. As empress of an absolutist regime, she utilized her sheer power to "cleanse this empire of the great scourge that are heretics and heathens - by any means necessary." In 1695, Apollonia expanded upon the Evarna. These expansions granted them legal protections, a large degree of autonomy from the central government, large amounts of missionaries and Aνακριτής (anakritis, or investigators), and their own army. Apollonia wrote that "these tools would help in our divine quest to convert the religious dissidents of this empire."
The Byzantine Everna, also known by some in the west as the Byzantine Inquisition, would last from 1691 to 1866. During Apollonia's reign, they would convert the Balkans, Hungary, and much of the Middle East. While often times it was peaceful, many instances of killings, massacres, and outright genocides were recorded. It has been estimated that through these conversions, up to 2 million people were killed in what has been dubbed as the Apollonian Genocide or the Apollonian Wars of Religion (the preferred name choice varies between pro-Apollonia and anti-Apollonia scholars).
Cappadocian[]
Torture of Efseveisians by Evarna.
In Cappadocia existed a Christian sect called the Efsevians, founded by Theodosius Lecapenas. Early in its history, the faith was persecuted heavily, to the point of near extinction, however, with the Byzantines distracted in the 16th century, it was able to grow. By 1600, they numbered at somewhere between 500,000 to 3 million. However, the 17th Century is often dubbed as "the Century of Death" by Efseveisians. Under the reign of Constantine XIV, the violence in Cappadocia and other Efseveisian populated areas was renewed, leading to conflict. This only worsened under the reign of Apollonia, who clearly wasn't to hesitant to force convert religious dissidents by the sword, and the already hated Efseveisians were nearly driven to extinction under her reign. Out of desperation, many converted to Eastern Orthodoxy, under pressure from Byzantine Inquisitors, or fled to the New World, other parts of Eurasia and Africa, or Janzland. This has been deemed the Efseveisian Diaspora by historians. An estimated eight million people left mainland Byzantium from 1680 - 1720, including, but not limited to Efseveisians. By Apollonia's death in 1726, there were between 3,000 and 6,000 Efseveisians left.
War with Persia[]
With the Byzantine Empire in a state of great turbulence, the path was open for foreign wars of conquest. During the Jakabite Wars, the Safavid Dynasty of Persia had invaded the empire's Middle Eastern possessions. However, under the reign of Simeon II and Andreas I, these lands were reintegrated into the Byzantine realm. However, with Byzantium distracted, the Persians had been eying their lost territories in the near east. The Persian Shah, Abbas II, began preparations for war in 1694, and in Autumn of 1695.
They met the Byzantines at the Battle of Kallinikos on November 7, 1695.
Kinsi[]
War of the Iberian Succession[]
Second War With Persia[]
Invasions of Abyssinia[]
Later Life[]
Death[]
Legacy[]
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