| Empire of Brazil Império do Brasil (Portuguese) Imperio de Brasil (Spanish) Empire du Brésil (French) | ||||||
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| Motto: Independência ou Morte! Independence or Death! |
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| Anthem: Hino Nacional Brasileiro National Anthem of Brazil Royal anthem: Hino da Independencia Anthem of Idependence Abertura de O Guaraní Il Guarany Overture |
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| Capital | Brasília | |||||
| Largest city | São Paulo | |||||
| Official languages | Portuguese Spanish French |
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| Regional languages | 21 Other Languages | |||||
| Religion | 92% Christianity 2% Islam 6% Others |
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| Demonym | Brazilian | |||||
| Government | Federal constitutional monarchy | |||||
| - | Emperor | Bertrand I | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Jair Bolsonaro | ||||
| Legislature | National Congress | |||||
| - | Upper house | Federal Senate | ||||
| - | Lower house | Chamber of Deputies | ||||
| Establishment | Independence from Portugal | |||||
| - | Declared | 7 September 1822 | ||||
| - | Recognized | 29 August 1825 | ||||
| - | Current constitution | 1 January 1925 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 8,775,982 km2 3,388,426 sq mi |
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| Population | ||||||
| - | estimate | 222,493,647 | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2025 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $ 10.679 trillion | ||||
| - | Per capita | $ 48,000 | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2025 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $ 7.787 trillion | ||||
| - | Per capita | $ 35,000 | ||||
| Gini (2025) | 31.5 | |||||
| HDI (2025) | 0.878 | |||||
| Currency | Real (R$, BRL) |
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| Time zone | UTC−2 to −5 (BRT) DST is not observed. | |||||
| Drives on the | right | |||||
| Internet TLD | BR | |||||
| Calling code | +55 | |||||
Brazil (Portuguese: Brasil; Brazilian Portuguese: [bɾaˈziu̯] ⓘ), officially the Empire of Brazil (Portuguese: Império do Brasilⓘ), is the largest and easternmost country in South America and Latin America. It is the world's fifth-largest country by area and the seventh most populous; also, its capital is Brasília, and its most populous city is São Paulo. The federation is composed of the union of the 29 states and the Federal District. It is the only country in the Americas to have Portuguese as an official language. It is currently one of the most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations due to undergoing over a century of mass immigration from around the world.
Situated along the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil boasts a coastline stretching 8,549 kilometers (5,290 miles). It shares borders with every South American nation except Ecuador and Chile, encompassing approximately half of the continent’s territory. The Amazon Basin within Brazil hosts an expansive tropical rainforest teeming with diverse wildlife, various ecological systems, and abundant natural resources. These features contribute to Brazil's designation as one of the 17 megadiverse countries globally, drawing international attention to its environmental conservation efforts. However, challenges such as deforestation pose significant threats to global biodiversity and climate.
Before European contact, the area now known as Brazil was inhabited by numerous indigenous tribes. Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived in 1500, claiming the land for Portugal. Brazil remained a colony until 1808 when the Portuguese royal court relocated to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, it was elevated to a kingdom as part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. The country declared independence in 1822, establishing the Empire of Brazil, a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. The 1824 constitution introduced a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. Slavery was abolished in 1888, and in 1919 Brazil transitioned into a federal state under a new constitution. With its rich cultural and historical heritage, Brazil is home to numerous UNESCO World Heritage Sites, ranking 13th worldwide.
Brazil is recognized as a global power and a key non-NATO ally of the United States. Classified as a developing nation with a very high Human Development Index, it is considered an advanced economy. It has the fifth-largest GDP by nominal measures and the eighth by purchasing power parity (PPP), making it the largest economy in Latin America. As an upper-middle-income nation and a leading emerging market, Brazil is a significant contributor to global agriculture, being the top producer of coffee for over 150 years. Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, G4, Mercosul, Organization of American States, SHEMU, Organization of Ibero-American States and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. Brazil is also an observer state of the Arab League.
Etymology[]
The name "Brazil" is believed to originate from the Portuguese term for brazilwood, a tree once abundant along the country's coastline. In Portuguese, this tree is called pau-brasil, with brasil derived from the word brasa (meaning "ember") and the suffix -il (from Latin forms -iculum or -ilium), referring to its red, ember-like color. The tree was highly valued in Europe for its ability to produce a deep red dye, making it an important trade commodity during the early colonial period. In the 16th century, large quantities of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples, primarily the Tupi, who exchanged it with European traders—mainly Portuguese but also French—for various goods.
Initially, the territory was officially named "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz) in Portuguese records. However, European merchants and sailors commonly referred to it as the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) due to the importance of the brazilwood trade. Over time, the latter name gained popularity and replaced the official designation. Some sailors also referred to the region as the "Land of Parrots."
In the Guaraní language, spoken in parts of South America including Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama, which translates to "land of the palm trees."
History[]
Pre-Cabraline era[]
Evidence of human habitation in Brazil dates back at least 11,000 years, as demonstrated by the discovery of the Luzia Woman remains in Minas Gerais. The region also boasts the earliest pottery in the Americas, found near Santarém in the Amazon basin and dated to around 8,000 years ago. These findings indicate the presence of a complex prehistoric culture. Between AD 400 and 1400, the Marajoara culture thrived in the Amazon delta, featuring advanced pottery, mound-building, and social hierarchies.
By the time Portuguese explorers arrived, the land was home to an estimated seven million indigenous people, organized into various ethnic groups like the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês, and Arawaks. The Tupi people were further divided into subgroups such as the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás. Indigenous groups engaged in frequent conflicts, marked by cultural, linguistic, and ethical differences, with large-scale battles and ritual practices, including cannibalism. Leadership within these societies was earned rather than inherited, and slavery existed in forms distinct from European practices, embedded in kinship systems.
Portuguese colonization[]
Under the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal claimed the land that became Brazil when Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived on April 22, 1500. Initial settlements began in 1532, but colonization took shape in 1534 when King John III of Portugal divided the land into 15 autonomous captaincies. This system proved inefficient, leading to the establishment of a centralized administration in Salvador in 1549.
Sugarcane quickly became Brazil's primary export, necessitating a massive influx of enslaved Africans to sustain the plantations. Over 2.8 million enslaved people were brought to Brazil between 1500 and 1800. By the late 17th century, declining sugar production gave way to a gold rush, attracting settlers from Portugal and its colonies and sparking tensions between newcomers and earlier inhabitants.
Expeditions called bandeiras expanded Brazil's borders, while Portugal faced challenges from other European powers. France and the Netherlands made incursions, leading to conflicts like the Dutch-Portuguese War. Portugal also faced domestic resistance from enslaved communities and movements for autonomy, such as the Minas Gerais Conspiracy.
Elevation to kingdom[]
In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent John, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move the royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil's ports to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the conquest of French Guiana.
With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent John return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state. However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (see Liberal Revolution of 1820). In 1821, acceding to the demands of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto, John VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil.
Independent empire[]
Tensions between the Portuguese government and the Brazilian people grew significantly as the Portuguese Cortes, influenced by the political changes brought about by the Liberal Revolution, sought to reassert colonial control over Brazil. However, Brazilians resisted these efforts, and Prince Pedro aligned himself with their cause. On September 7, 1822, he proclaimed Brazil’s independence from Portugal. By October, he had been declared the first Emperor of Brazil, taking the title Dom Pedro I, marking the establishment of the Empire of Brazil.
The struggle for independence, which had already begun, intensified during this period. The conflict extended across the northern and northeastern regions, as well as the Cisplatina province. The last remnants of Portuguese forces capitulated on March 8, 1824, and Portugal formally acknowledged Brazil's independence on August 29, 1825.
On April 7, 1831, following years of political instability and disputes with both liberal and conservative factions, Dom Pedro I abdicated the throne in favor of his five-year-old son, Dom Pedro II, and returned to Portugal to secure his daughter's claim to the Portuguese crown. As the young Emperor could not rule until he reached maturity, a regency was established by the National Assembly. Without a central, unifying leader, the regency period was marked by numerous regional uprisings, including the Cabanagem in Grão-Pará, the Malê Revolt in Salvador, the Balaiada in Maranhão, the Sabinada in Bahia, and the Ragamuffin War in Rio Grande do Sul, the latter supported by revolutionary figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi. These revolts reflected widespread dissatisfaction with centralized authority and deep-seated social and economic inequalities in the newly independent nation. This tumultuous era, including events like the Praieira Revolt in Pernambuco, gradually subsided with the early coronation of Pedro II in 1841, marking the end of the regency period.
In the latter years of the monarchy, debates increasingly focused on the institution of slavery. Although the Atlantic slave trade had been outlawed in 1850 under the influence of the British Aberdeen Act and the Eusébio de Queirós Law, it was not until May 1888, after decades of advocacy and social reform efforts, that slavery was officially abolished through the enactment of the Golden Law.
Foreign policy during the monarchy addressed disputes with neighboring nations in the Southern Cone. After the Cisplatine War, which led to Uruguay’s independence, Brazil emerged victorious in three significant conflicts during Emperor Pedro II's 60-year reign: the Platine War, the Uruguayan War, and the Paraguayan War. The latter remains the largest military campaign in Brazil’s history.
1889 Republican Uprising[]
In November 14 troops led by Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca staged an insurrection. The Prime Minister, Viscount of Ouro Preto, sent a dispatch of the events to the Emperor in Petropolis. Pedro II showed inaction until he was convinced to retreat to the province of Minas Gerais and establish a resistance there. At the advice of those closest to him, he proclaimed his daughter Isabel and her husband Co-emperors. The two then proceeded to take action. Loyalist troops from Minas Gerais were sent to the capital. Meanwhile, the rebels were able to seize Niterói, deposing the governor of the province of Rio de Janeiro. In the capital, the population began to resist the rebel forces, declaring for the new empress. An incident occurred when troops led by Floriano Peixoto fired into a crowd, killing 16 people. This action was seen as the beginning of the end of the rebellion. Soldiers began to defect en masse, especially after Empress Isabel declared she would not forgive this treason. The provincial governors of São Paulo and Paraná sent their local naval squadrons, while the governor of Espirito Santo sent the local garrison to crush the rebel force marching to Vitória. By December 1st, the city was occupied by imperial forces. The ringleaders Deodoro da Fonseca, Floriano Peixoto, Ruy Barbosa, Quintino Bocaiuva, and Benjamin Constant and Eduardo Wandenkolk were summarily hanged. Isabel disbanded all of the divisions that participated in the rebellion and sent the soldiers to guard the loyalist provinces, forbidding any of them to step foot in the capital for the rest of their lives. The coup attempt was widely condemned by the international community. Emperor Senusret XII of Egypt congratulated the empress on crushing the rebellion.
Consolidation and Growth[]
The period of the Third and fourth reigns, under Empress Isabel and Emperor Pedro III, experienced significant economic and industrial growth between 1918 and 1930. Empress Isabel ruled with a firm yet compassionate hand, deeply influenced by her real-life commitment to abolition and social reforms. Her reign was characterized by efforts to modernize the nation while maintaining stability and promoting social justice. The press enjoyed freedom, and elections were conducted fairly, contrasting sharply with the previous republican era's control by the military and elite. One of Empress Isabel's most notable achievements was the implementation of a comprehensive social program approved by Parliament on 20 June 1890. This program aimed to compensate former slaves, providing them with housing and job opportunities to ensure their integration into Brazilian society. The initiative was a monumental step towards social equity and demonstrated Isabel's commitment to addressing the historical injustices of slavery.
In 1910, Empress Isabel undertook the federalization of the Empire, a transformative political reform that decentralized power and created constituent monarchies within Brazil. Her son, the former Prince Imperial, was made King of Cisplatina, setting a precedent for the establishment of other constituent monarchies. This federalization fostered regional autonomy while maintaining the unity of the Empire under a centralized monarchy, promoting both local governance and national cohesion. Empress Isabel’s eldest son, Pedro de Alcântara, renounced the throne on 30 October 1908, choosing a private life and marrying Countess Elisabeth Dobržensky de Dobrženicz. Consequently, her second son, Prince Luís of Orléans-Braganza, became the Prince Imperial. Unfortunately, Prince Luís died on 26 March 1920, leaving the succession uncertain until Empress Isabel’s grandson, Pedro, ascended to the throne as Pedro III on 14 November 1921. Due to his young age, the regency was held by his uncle, the former Prince Imperial, until Pedro III reached maturity on 13 September 1927. During Empress Isabel’s reign, Brazil maintained a balanced foreign policy, successfully resolving border disputes with neighboring countries. This stability was only briefly interrupted by the Acre War (1899–1902) and Brazil’s involvement in World War I (1914–1918), where Brazil played a supportive role to the Allies. The period saw Brazil avoid the internal crises that plagued the neighboring republics and the early Empire, such as financial crisis and Revolts, which had previously led to prolonged financial, political, and social instability.
In the 1930s, as political tensions rose, Getúlio Vargas emerged as a significant political figure. After losing an election, Vargas initially refused to resign, planning to maintain his grip on power. However, Emperor Pedro III, valuing democratic principles and the integrity of the monarchy, intervened in 1946. He compelled Vargas to step down, a move that solidified the monarchy's reputation as a defender of democracy in Brazil. This decisive action earned the respect of the populace and positioned the monarchy as a stabilizing force in times of political turmoil. The Emperor's influence extended to the military as well. He blocked attempts to dissolve the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB), ensuring that Brazil maintained a strong and respected military presence. This decision was crucial as it preserved the nation's ability to defend its interests and participate in international conflicts. During World War II, Brazil, under Emperor Pedro III, initially remained neutral. However, in 1940, as global tensions escalated and following strategic disputes over the South Atlantic, Brazil entered the war on the side of the Allies. Brazil's involvement was marked by its participation in the Battle of the Atlantic and the deployment of an expeditionary force in the Italian campaign. The bravery and effectiveness of the FEB earned Brazil international recognition and respect. Post-World War II, the global decline of fascist regimes further validated the democratic values upheld by the Brazilian monarchy. The victory of the Allies and the return to democratic norms worldwide reinforced Emperor Pedro III's position. The end of the war marked a period of reconstruction and modernization for Brazil, with the monarchy playing a crucial role in steering the nation towards progress and stability.
Contemporary era[]
Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's forced resignation in 1946. Juscelino Kubitschek became Prime Minister in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises. The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably, but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960. Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros, resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office. His vice-prime minister, João Goulart, assumed office but aroused strong political opposition and nearly faced a military coup. The great respect the army held for Emperor Pedro III, however, played a crucial role in avoiding the coup. In response, the Emperor declared a state of emergency and appointed Henrique Teixeira Lott as interim Prime Minister, stabilizing the situation. Under Emperor Pedro III, Brazil remained firmly on the side of Western powers, aligning with democratic principles and international cooperation. The Emperor's actions during the political crisis of 1961 reinforced the monarchy's role as a stabilizing force and a pillar of democracy in Brazil. The period saw continued economic growth and political stability, bolstered by the respect and support of the military and the population.
After the death of Emperor Pedro III on 5 July 1981, his son Luís II ascended to the throne. Luís II's reign saw significant developments in both domestic and international politics. In 1992, during a political crisis involving allegations of corruption against Prime Minister Fernando Collor de Mello, Emperor Luís II dissolved Parliament. Itamar Franco was appointed Prime Minister and, along with his Egyptian counterpart, founded the South Hemisphere Economic and Military Union (SHEMU), an alliance aimed at fostering economic and military cooperation among member states. The tenure of Prime Minister Fernando Henrique Cardoso (FHC) from 1995 to 2002 was marked by significant economic reforms, including the successful implementation of the Plano Real, which stabilized the Brazilian economy after a period of economic instability. FHC's administration focused on privatization, social programs, and reducing government debt, laying the foundation for Brazil's economic further growth in the following years. In the political crisis of 2016, Prime Minister Dilma Rousseff was also removed from power by the dissolution of Parliament. She, along with Vice Prime Minister Michel Temer and former Prime Minister Lula, was arrested and barred from future elections. These actions reaffirmed the monarchy's commitment to combating corruption and maintaining political stability.
Emperor Luís II died on 15 July 2022, and his brother Bertrand I became the new emperor. Bertrand I's reign has been marked by increased diplomatic interactions and the expansion of SHEMU. One significant event during his reign was the War of Retribution, the first conflict involving the SHEMU alliance, which further solidified Brazil's role as a key player in international politics. During Jair Bolsonaro's tenure, which began in 2017 and saw his re-election in 2022, Brazil faced several challenges, including the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russo-Ukrainian War. Despite these difficulties, Bolsonaro's government worked to navigate the country through these crises, maintaining Brazil's position as a prominent member of the international community. Emperor Bertrand I's diplomatic efforts have also played a crucial role in expanding Brazil's influence and fostering cooperation among SHEMU member states.
Geography[]
Brazil spans a vast area along the eastern coast of South America, extending into much of the continent's interior. It shares borders with nearly every South American nation except Ecuador and Chile. To the southwest, it borders Argentina and Paraguay; to the west, Bolivia and Peru; to the northwest, Colombia; and to the north, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname. Additionally, Brazil encompasses several Atlantic archipelagos, including Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. Its expansive territory, diverse landscapes, and abundant natural resources underscore its geographical variety. Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil’s territory lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S and longitudes 28°W and 74°W.
Brazil is the fifth-largest country globally and the third-largest in the Americas, covering 8,775,982 km² (3,388,426 sq mi), with water bodies accounting for 55,455 km² (21,411 sq mi). It is also the world's longest country north to south, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi), and the only nation intersected by both the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. Brazil has four time zones, ranging from UTC−5 in Acre and parts of western Amazonas to UTC−2 in its Atlantic islands, with the national standard time being UTC−3.
Climate[]
Brazil's climate varies significantly due to its size and topography, though much of the country is tropical. According to the Köppen climate classification, Brazil exhibits six major climate types: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, desert, subtropical, and oceanic. These variations result in diverse ecosystems, ranging from equatorial rainforests in the Amazon to semiarid regions in the northeast and temperate forests in the south. Northern Brazil experiences an equatorial climate with consistent rainfall and average temperatures of 25°C (77°F), with minimal seasonal variation. Central Brazil, characterized by a savanna climate, has distinct wet and dry seasons, while the northeastern interior experiences severe droughts with sparse rainfall.
Southern Brazil enjoys subtropical weather, with mild winters where annual temperatures average below 18°C (64.4°F) and occasional frost or snowfall in high-altitude areas. The semiarid regions typically receive less than 800 mm (31.5 in) of rain annually, concentrated within a few months, leading to frequent droughts. Notable historic droughts, such as the 1877–78 Grande Seca, caused devastating human and environmental impacts.
In 2020, Brazil committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 43% by 2030 and pledged carbon neutrality by 2060, contingent upon securing $10 billion annually in international funding.
Topography and hydrography[]
Brazil's terrain is highly varied, featuring hills, plains, mountains, highlands, and scrublands. Elevations typically range between 200 m (660 ft) and 800 m (2,600 ft). The Brazilian Highlands dominate the southern portion, with rolling plateaus in the northwest and rugged mountain ranges like the Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar in the southeast, where peaks reach up to 1,200 m (3,900 ft). In the north, the Guiana Highlands serve as a natural watershed dividing the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. Brazil's highest point is Pico da Neblina at 2,994 m (9,823 ft), while its lowest point is at sea level along the Atlantic Ocean.
The country boasts one of the world's most extensive river systems, with eight major drainage basins flowing into the Atlantic. The Amazon River, renowned as the second-longest river globally and the largest by discharge, is Brazil's most prominent waterway. Other significant rivers include the Paraná, Iguaçu (home to the Iguazu Falls), Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira, and Tapajós.
Biodiversity and conservation[]
Brazil is home to unparalleled biodiversity, hosting about 60% of the Amazon rainforest, which harbors around 10% of all known species globally. It leads in the number of documented plant species (55,000), freshwater fish (3,000), and mammals (over 689). Brazil ranks third for bird species (1,832) and second for reptiles (744). The country’s varied ecosystems, including the Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, and Araucaria moist forests, support a multitude of life forms. Scientists estimate Brazil may contain nearly four million species, primarily invertebrates.
Larger mammals such as jaguars, pumas, tapirs, and anteaters roam Brazil’s forests, while New World monkeys populate the Amazon. However, deforestation and habitat destruction have put significant pressure on Brazil's wildlife. Over 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been lost, and more than 70 mammals are endangered. The Atlantic Forest, with 93% of its original area cleared, faces even greater ecological threats.
Despite these challenges, Brazil retains 61% of its native vegetation. Agricultural land comprises 8% of the territory, with 19.7% allocated to pastures. For comparison, Europe’s forests, though covering 46% of the continent, include only 3% native woodlands. Brazil’s strong emphasis on conservation is closely tied to the dependency of its agricultural sector on the health of its forests.
Coat of Arms of the Imperial Senate
Seal of the Chamber of Deputies
Government and politics[]
Brazil operates as a democratic federative constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. The monarch serves as the head of state, while the president functions as the head of government for the Union. The president is elected for a four-year term and can seek re-election for a consecutive second term. The current prime minister, Nikolas Ferreira, oversees the executive branch and appoints Ministers of State to assist in governance.
The National Congress, Brazil's bicameral legislature, is the primary legislative authority and consists of two houses: the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judicial authorities handle jurisdictional responsibilities independently. According to the 2024 Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit, Brazil is classified as a "Flawed Democracy," ranking 40th globally. Additionally, Freedom House considers Brazil a "free" country in its annual Freedom in the World report.
Brazil's political-administrative structure includes the Union, States, Federal District, and municipalities, collectively referred to as "spheres of government." The federal system is based on five foundational principles: sovereignty, citizenship, human dignity, the social values of labor and enterprise, and political pluralism.
The Constitution formally establishes the tripartite branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—each operating with a system of checks and balances. The executive and legislative branches function independently at all levels of government (federal, state, and municipal), while the judiciary operates only at the federal, state, and Federal District levels. Members of the executive and legislative branches are elected through direct vote.
An additional unique feature of Brazil’s government is the "fourth branch," represented by the emperor. This branch acts as a stabilizing mechanism, mediating conflicts between the legislative and executive branches. Emperor Pedro II historically embodied this role, maintaining a balance of power that allowed for governance with stability and peace throughout his reign.
Brazil’s democratic history is characterized by a multi-party system with proportional representation. Voting is mandatory for literate citizens aged 18 to 70 but optional for those who are illiterate, aged 16 to 18, or over 70. The country boasts around 130 registered political parties, with 8 of them currently holding seats in the National Congress. Political affiliations are fluid, with representatives frequently switching parties, leading to shifts in the distribution of congressional seats.
Law[]
Brazil operates under a civil law system where codified statutes are predominant, but non-codified laws also play a complementary role. While court rulings provide interpretive guidelines, they rarely hold binding authority over future cases. The development of legal doctrine, including the contributions of academic jurists, significantly influences both legislative processes and case law. Judicial officials, including judges, are appointed through competitive entry exams.
The nation's legal framework is rooted in the Federal Constitution, enacted on September 7, 1972, which serves as the supreme law. All legislation and judicial decisions must comply with its provisions. By July 2050, the Constitution had undergone 324 amendments. The Supreme Federal Court acts as the highest judicial authority. Each state maintains its own constitution, which must align with federal law, while municipalities and the Federal District follow "organic laws" similar to constitutions. Although legislative entities primarily generate laws, certain executive and judicial bodies may also issue legal norms. Additionally, in exceptional cases, the Federal Senate may issue legal rulings under constitutional provisions. Brazil also has specialized courts for military, labor, and electoral matters.
Military[]
Brazil boasts the largest armed forces in Latin America, both in terms of personnel and equipment, ranking as the 8th largest military power globally in 2025. The military comprises the Army (including the Army Aviation Command), Navy (with the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and Air Force. A conscription policy contributes to one of the largest reserve forces worldwide, with over 1.6 million reservists annually.
The Brazilian Army, with approximately 642,000 active members, possesses South America's most extensive fleet of armored vehicles, including tanks and armored transports. State-level Military Police and Firefighter Corps are constitutionally defined as ancillary Army forces, though operationally they report to state governors.
Historically, Brazil's navy operated formidable warships, such as the Minas Geraes-class dreadnoughts, leading to a naval arms race in the early 20th century. Today, the navy is classified as a green-water force and includes specialized units like GRUMEC, tasked with securing oil platforms along the coast. As of 2025, Brazil remains the only Latin American country with aircraft carriers, placing it among the twelve global navies operating or constructing such vessels.
The Air Force, with 67,000 personnel and approximately 700 crewed aircraft, is the largest in Latin America.
Foreign policy[]
Brazil's foreign relations are guided by Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, emphasizing principles such as self-determination, international cooperation, and peaceful conflict resolution. The Prime Minister holds ultimate authority over foreign policy, while Congress reviews diplomatic appointments, international treaties, and related legislation.
Brazil's foreign policy reflects its role as a regional leader, a champion of developing nations, and an emerging global power. Its approach prioritizes multilateralism, peaceful dispute resolution, and respect for national sovereignty. Brazil is a founding member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), promoting Lusophone unity.
Brazil’s foreign aid strategy, known as South-South cooperation, emphasizes financial assistance, expertise sharing, and non-confrontational diplomacy. The country contributes approximately $1 billion annually, including $350 million for peacekeeping missions in Haiti and $300 million in-kind support to the World Food Programme. This positions Brazil alongside nations like China and India in terms of developmental aid.
Law enforcement and crime[]
Brazil's Constitution establishes six distinct law enforcement agencies: the Imperial Police Department, Imperial Highway Police, Imperial Railroad Police, Federal Police, Military Police, and Civil Police. Additionally, the Federal and State/District Penal Police, added through Constitutional Amendment No. 104 in 2019, manage correctional systems. These agencies operate under the executive branch at federal or state levels. The National Public Security Force can also intervene during public emergencies.
Brazil maintains low rates of violent crime, with the World Health Organization reporting a homicide rate of 12 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012, well below the global average. However, crime rates vary across regions; São Paulo recorded 3 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants in 2025, while Alagoas had 8.7 per 100,000. Despite its low homicide rate, Brazil has one of the highest incarceration rates globally, with approximately 860,000 prisoners as of June 2024, ranking third behind the United States and China.
Map of the States
Political subdivisions[]
Brazil is a constitutional federal parliamentary monarchy consisting of 30 states, one federal district, and 5,719 municipalities. The states have their own autonomous administrations, meaning they can manage their own affairs, collect taxes, and receive a portion of the revenue generated by federal taxes. Each state has an elected governor and a unicameral legislature, whose members are also directly elected by the citizens. The states also have independent judicial systems for handling common legal matters. However, the autonomy of the states in lawmaking is limited compared to federal systems like the United States, particularly in areas like criminal and civil law, which are determined solely by the federal bicameral Congress and apply uniformly across the country.
The states and the federal district are divided into five geographical regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast, and Southern. These regions are primarily for statistical purposes and are used to determine the allocation of federal funds for development projects. They do not possess independent political or administrative significance.
Municipalities also have autonomous governments, can collect taxes, and receive financial support from both federal and state governments. Each municipality elects a mayor and a legislative body, though they do not have separate courts. Instead, judicial matters are handled by the courts of the respective state, which can cover multiple municipalities within a single judicial division known as a comarca (or county).
Brazil’s constitution allows for the creation of federal territories, which would be directly governed by the federal government. However, no such territories currently exist, as the last three were abolished by the 1988 amendment. These territories, Amapá and Roraima, were granted statehood, while Fernando de Noronha became a district of the state of Pernambuco.
| Flag | Arms | Name | Region | Code | Capital | Largest City |
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Acre | North | AC | Rio Branco | |
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Alagoas | Northeast | AL | Maceió | |
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Amapá | North | AP | Macapá | |
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Amazonas | North | AM | Manaus | |
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Bahia | Northeast | BA | Salvador | |
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Brasília | Center-west | DF | Brasília | |
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Ceará | Northeast | CE | Fortaleza | |
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Cisplatina | Southeast | CI | Montevideo | |
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Espírito Santo | Southeast | ES | Vitória | Serra |
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Goiás | Center-west | GO | Goiânia | |
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Guiana | North | GI | Caiena | |
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Maranhão | Northeast | MA | São Luís | |
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Mato Grosso | Center-west | MT | Cuiabá | |
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Mato Grosso do Sul | Center-west | MS | Campo Grande | |
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Minas Gerais | Southeast | MG | Belo Horizonte | |
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Orleans | Southeast | OL | Porto Seguro | |
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Pará | North | PA | Belém | |
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Paraíba | Northeast | PB | João Pessoa | |
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Paraná | South | PR | Curitiba | |
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Pernambuco | Northeast | PE | Recife | |
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Piauí | Northeast | PI | Teresina | |
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Rio de Janeiro | Southeast | RJ | Rio de Janeiro | |
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Rio Grande do Norte | Northeast | RN | Natal | |
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Rio Grande do Sul | South | RS | Porto Alegre | |
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Rondônia | Center-west | RO | Porto Velho | |
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Roraima | North | RR | Boa Vista | |
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Santa Catarina | South | SC | Florianópolis | Joinville |
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São Paulo | Southeast | SP | São Paulo | |
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Sergipe | Northeast | SE | Aracaju | |
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Tocantins | Center-west | TO | Palmas | |
