Κύριε, Βασιλιάς των Βασιλέων, βοηθήστε τον μεγάλο Αυτοκράτορα (Greek) ("Lord, King of Kings, aid the great Emperor") | |||||||
| Anthem | "Ω, Πατρίδα!"
" | ||||||
| Capital (and largest city) |
Constantinople | ||||||
| Other cities | Nicaea Andrionople, Antioch, Nicomedia, Athens, | ||||||
| Language official |
Greek | ||||||
| others | Arab, South Slavic languages, Romanian | ||||||
| Religion main |
Christianity | ||||||
| others | Islam, Judaism, Hinduism | ||||||
| Ethnic Groups main |
Greek | ||||||
| others | Arab, Serbian, Bulgarian | ||||||
| Demonym | Roman/Byzantine | ||||||
| Government | Constitutional Monarchy | ||||||
| Legislature | Parliament, Byzantine Court | ||||||
| Emperor | Constantine XXI | ||||||
| Royal house: | House of Molivesti | ||||||
| President | Alexios Constantius | ||||||
| Prime Minister | Constantine Alexopoilos | ||||||
| Population | 153 million | ||||||
| GDP Total: |
$11 Trillion | ||||||
| per capita | $71,895.42 | ||||||
| Independence | from 330/395 | ||||||
| Currency | Roman Drachma (₯) | ||||||
| Time Zone | GMT+03:00 | ||||||
| summer | May-September | ||||||
| Driving Side | Right side of road | ||||||
| Calling Code | 14 | ||||||
| Internet TLD | .rom | ||||||
The Empire of the Romans, commonly referred to as the Empire of Rome, the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, is a large, semi-autocratic monarchy located at the crossroads of Afro-Eurasia. It is one of the most powerful and among the largest nations on Earth, stretching from Crimea to Sudan, in addition to being an economic juggernaut.
History[]
The Byzantine Empire can trace its roots to 330 AD when Constantine I "the Great" moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium, later renamed to Nova Roma (New Rome), and then finally, Constantinople. Though while not officially independent, the groundwork for the Eastern Roman Empire was laid on that fateful year.
The Empire achieved official independence in 395 after the splitting off the Roman Empire following the death of Emperor Theodosius I. His two inept sons, Honorius and Arcadius, took the western and eastern half of the empire respectively. The Western half swiftly fell to Barbarian invasions, with every emperor after Valentinian III being merely a puppet to Barbarian chieftains. Julius Nepos was the last emperor who wielded any power whatsoever before being replaced by Romulus Augustus, who was effectively not even emperor in any way and only recognized as so by the east due to the fact that Odoacer, the barbarian warlord that was actually in power, minted coins with Romulus' face on it. In 476, Romulus himself was deposed, disappearing into historical records afterward. The Western Empire soon collapsed.
At first, the East believed that the west would be restored and it was merely experiencing technical difficulties. Under the reign of Justinian, much of what was once the empire's imperial possessions were salvaged, bringing the Byzantine Empire to its second height. After his death in the 550s, his successors struggled to hold on to the reconquered territories. Under Heraclius, the Heraclian War (OTL's Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628) was fought with Persia, devastating both empires and allowing the Muslims to expand their caliphate, weakening the Byzantine Empire. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the empire was at its lowest point. Incursions from Arabs, Bulgarians, and other polities reduced the empire size greatly
As the Bulgarian and Arab states went into decline, Byzantium slowly restored itself as a power to be reckoned with. Under the reign of Basil II, the Bulgarians were annexed into the Empire and the Empire entered into a brief age of prosperity. This golden age collapsed after Basil's death in the 1020s however, and a period of instability followed. This was worsened in the 1050s and 1060s when several emperors would come to power, attempting to establish their own dynasty.
Meanwhile, in the east, new developments were occurring. In particular, a new enemy had entered the scene in the Middle East. Recent converts to Islam and originating from the steppes of Central Asia, the Seljuk Turks would pose a significant threat to the Byzantine Empire.
Point of Divergence (1071)[]
The Roman Victory at Manzikert by John Alexios. Painted in 1899.
In 1067, Constantine X Doukas expired, and his wife, Eudokia, now widowed, married a Cappadocian General, Romanos IV Diogenes. He vowed to defeat the Turks and began preparing for war. Conflict erupted and the two forces engaged each other near a city known as Manzikert in 1071. The Battle of Manzikert was a decisive Byzantine victory. Alp Arslan, commander of the Turkish forces, narrowly avoided capture, and his army was in shambles. Soon afterward, Alp Arslan was forced to make peace with the Byzantines, ceding what some have seen as excessive amounts of territory to the Byzantines.
The Diogenid Dynasty[]
Romanos was the last of the aforementioned emperors who attempted to establish their own dynasty. He established the Diogenid Dynasty, a dynasty that would rule from 1167 to 1201. The dynasty had received applause from historians and has been heralded as an ideal dynasty, particularly for each generation's equal regard for good leadership. The Diogenid Golden Age began under their rule, lasting for a good chunk of their reign.
After neutering the Turks as a threat, Romanos glanced eastwards, towards Norman Italy. The Normans had not been idle during this period of history, seizing Byzantine holdings in Italy. Under the command of the formidable and skilled Robert Guiscard and his son, Bohemond of Taranto, the Normans invaded Illyria, capturing the city of Dyrrachium (Durrës) and Corfu and laying siege to Larissa in 1181. Romanos IV proceeded to engage the Normans in a pitched battle, and did so at the Battle of Volos, repelling the Normans and forcing them to fall back to Lassira, which was captured in November. The Normans fled to Vlacha, seeking a defensible position on Mount Koziakas. The two met at the Battle of Kozikas, where, in the biting winter, the Byzantines achieved a costly victory over the Normans. Soon afterward, the Normans and Byzantines convened to establish peace. The treaty saw Norman territorial concessions to the Byzantines, namely Sicily, Cosenza, and Lecce. These areas would serve as a launchpad for future Byzantine incursions into Italy (though Lecce would be lost in a minor war in 1091).
Romanos IV spent the rest of his life engaging in conflict with Paulican in Boogolimist heretics. He died in 1091 and was succeeded by his son, Nikephoros III. He died in 1102 at the Battle of Yerevan, fighting Armenian rebels, being succeeded by Thomas I, who died in 1108 at the youthful age of 13. His sister, Anthemia, was overthrown by her adopted brother, Alexios I, in 1114. The reign of Alexios saw the conquest of Syria and Assyria. He was succeeded by his son, Alexios II, who cemented the decline of the Fatimids via conquering the Levant. He also waged war with the Normans and Tunisians.
He was succeeded by his son, Alexios III. Alexios III was nothing like that of his predecessors. He barely had the wisdom to rule Rome, and his shortcomings in leadership would ultimately lead to the Ten Years War, a devastating civil war that saw nine different emperors usurp the Byzantine throne. Andronikos III, son of Alexios III, concluded the conflict in 1177. His twenty-year-long reign saw the implementation of long-needed reforms. This included, but was not limited to, reforms to Byzantine coinage, and the revitalization of the Theme System. He died in 1192, at the Battle of Tripoli at the hands of a new advisory to the Byzantines: Basilike I, King of the Egyptians and Nubians. Fortunately, Basilike died with Andronikos, and his wife, Ajola of Khartoum, who reigned as regent under Anggelos I, established peace with the Byzantines, fearing that the military incompetence of the Basilikean military elite would hamper the Nubian war effort. Andronikos was succeded by Andronikos IV, who died as a minor from measles in 1201.
Flokarid Dynasty[]
Nikephoros IV, Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans.
With the death of Andronikos IV, the Diogenid Dynasty ended and the Flokarid Dynasty, under Emperor Nikephoros IV, ruled the empire. Nikephoros IV was a highly disliked emperor. He was mentally insane and his policies angered others. He is perhaps famous as a result of his numerous wives. All these factors contributed to his deposition by Theodore I in 1204, who was in turn deposed by Romanos VI in 1206. Romanos was deposed by Nikephoros in 1208, being blinded at the Battle of Kaisareia and being forced to retreat to Constantinople, where he would expire from his wounds. Nikephoros usurped the throne later that year. Nikephoros was succeded by Marie I in 1218. Her seventeen other sisters contested the claim and this resulted in the Princesses' Feud, which Marie won, beheading all of her sisters and marrying a Pontic General, Constantinianus Melodus.
As a ruler, Marie was a capable ruler. The retaining of Anatolia and extra manpower meant that the empire was less reliant on mercenaries and thus had far more wealth in the treasury. Marie used this wealth to her advantage. She knew of the power of education and was quite concerned about her subjects. She had heard of the idea of the university, an institution that was being established in places such as England, Bologna, and Morocco. She established the University of Constantinople in 1227. Marie also constructed the Royal Library in 1234 and wrote close to forty books covering a range of topics ranging from science to history. She ruled during the Mongol Invasion and also waged war with the Hungarians, in addition to conquering Southern Italy.
Marie expired in 1268 and was succeeded by her son, Leo VII. Hated universally by the Byzantine higher-ups, he was deposed by his son, Michael VII. His rule is most famous for the Byzantine Hungarian War (1277 - 1280), where the Byzantines suffered a humiliating defeat by the Hungarians. Michael himself was slaughtered in the fighting and was succeeded by his 11-year-old stepbrother, Andronikos V. The conflict concluded and a regency ensued under his mother.
Andronikos V's reign was an eventful reign. The decaying Nubian Empire was annexed into the Byzantine realm during his reign and he waged two military conflicts with Persia. He expired in 1301, being succeeded by his son, Thomas II, who waged several successful conflicts with the Hungarians.
The Time of Troubles[]
The Middle East in the early 14th century.
By the 14th century, the Byzantine Empire was at its second height, only behind the days of Justinian. Stretching from Croatia to Assyria and from Cherssenon to Egypt, the empire was prosperous and powerful, projecting its influence across the region. The Empire was highly populous as well. Constantinople alone was home to around 1.5 million people, and the empire itself had a population of around 20 million. This was the beginning of the Κίνηση (Kínisi), which is Greek for movement. From the 14th to 20th centuries, tens of millions of Greek settlers settled in areas such as the Middle East, Balkans, Italy, Crimea, and the Caucasus, as well as other soon to be Byzantine territories.
However, for now, the overpopulation of the Byzantine homeland was beginning to become a major issue in the empire. The farmers of Anatolia just could not keep up with the rising demand for food, leading to rampant food shortages in cities such as Athens, Adrianople, Antioch, and of course, Constantinople. The climax of these food crop failures came in 1325, when the new emperor, Theodore II, received reports that stated that between 75-90% of the Anatolian crops. Thus began the Long Famine, also known as the Devastating Famine. It is estimated that about 50% of the empire's population perished through these difficult times. The situation was made worse by the Famine Wars, where Hungarians, Persians, Nubians, and Mongols circled around the empire to feast on the empire like crows. The invasion by the Golden Horde in 1337 unleashed the Bubonic plague onto the empire, killing vast swathes of people and bringing the empire to the verge of collapse.
Renaissance and Muslims[]
1421 depiction of the siege of Belgrade in the "Chronology of Bosnia."
Baptism of Christ, one of the most distinguished works of the Byzantine Renaissance.
Under Theodore III of the new Caerularid Dynasty and his successor, Thomas III, the empire mostly recovered from the crisis and fended off its advisories, most notably Tamerlane. It fought a conflict with Hungary in the 1410s over succession to the Byzantine throne before galloping back to the status of great power. The Renaissance thrived in the empire, with the empire flourishing from its cultural might. Greek settlers continued to migrate southward and the empire was thriving.
The Islamic Reformation of the late 15th century caused large upheaval in the empire's Muslim possessions as Sufis and Shiites battled each other for dominance. The central crux of the argument between the two factions was Byzantium, which controlled considerable amounts of the Muslim world and controlled all of Islam's most holy sites. The radical Shiites were able to rally the most support, defeating the Sufis and forming the Barian Caliphate in the late 1490s. Conflict erupted between them and the Byzantines, resulting in a sense of deja vu for the Romans as the Caliphate once again seized its Middle Eastern Possesions. By 1510, the Caliphate stretched from Morocco to Assyria and seemed invincible. However, after the elderly first generation of Muslim leadership died out, the empire's rapidly declined and by 1520, the borders of the Middle East had been restored to what they were in 1490. However, the Byzantines had exhausted themselves greatly in the conflict, which would not prepare them for what was occurring in Europe.
The Empire of Hungary[]
Idealized 19th-century painting of King Jakab I Dénes by the famous Hungarian realist (OTL's Romantic movement) artist, Jónás Kevin. "Jakab nagy király megragadja a hatalmat" ("The Great King Jakab seizes power")
Following the Bosnian War of the 1410s, Hungary had spiraled into a period of decline, with inept rulership, a faltering economy, and rampant corruption fueling this. Constant humiliations at the hands of the Holy Roman Empire, Byzantines, and even Ruthenians had further destabilized and decentralized the country and by the beginning of the 16th century, the kingdom was at the lowest point in its history.
This period of decline, known as the "A hanyatlás kora," (English: Age of Decline) was abruptly ended following the usurping of the Hungarian Throne by Jakab I, a noble of Transylvanian origin. He implemented numerous reforms that restored Hungarian might and aimed to invade the Roman Empire. In 1521, barely a year after the collapse of the Barians Caliphate, Jakab invaded, beginning the Jakabite Wars. The Invasion shocked the Byzantines and forced them to cede much of their Balakan possessions by 1530. Hungary immediately entered into an age of prosperity. It had taken the spoils of war from Byzantium as a way to introduce itself to the Renaissance, resulting in a massive flourishing of arts within the kingdom, which was furthered by the invitation of Jews to Hungary. By the conclusion of the Second Jakabite War in 1555, Hungary was arguably the most powerful and possibly the most advanced nation in Europe, with its implementation of modern technologies far outmatching its neighbors and with a strong, centralized economy and state, a stark contrast from OTL's 16th century Hungary.
On January 4, 1556, King Jakab I was crowned Csaszar of Hungary and Emperor of the Romans by the Pope himself. It was mainly a political move used to insult the HRE, who the Pope despised for their frequent attempts to limit Papal influence and for their succession from the Catholic Church and thus attempted to revoke the imperial title from the Germans while also insulting the heretical Byzantines. This empowered Jakab, however, the elderly emperor soon perished from pneumonia. He was succeeded by his son, Jakab II, who continued to wreak havoc on the Byzantine Empire, by now in a civil war.
As stated, the Hungarians were better at adapting to new technological advancements, and this was shown in the 1557 Siege of Constantinople, which nearly saw Constantine's city fall to the Hungarians. The near Hungarian triumph at Constantinople would lead to centuries of renovations of the Theodosian Walls, which due to neglect from at least the 14th century, had fallen into disrepair.
The Balkans in 1561
Theodre IV
In 1561, Theodore IV came to the Byzantine throne, having been the heir of Demetrios VI. Theodore gazed upon the empire's northern frontier, which was by now was just limited to Constantinople, southern Greece, Thessaloniki, and Kallopolis. He sought to curb Hungarian expansion and did so in 1565 -1567 Fouth Jakabite War, which saw the Byzantines launch the first blow, catching the Magyars by surprise. The conflict ended in a stalemate, with the Byzantines retrieving most of northern Greece from the Hungarians. This conflict was followed by another minor conflict from 1569 - 1572 and the major Sixth Jakabite War from 1574-78, signaling a turning point in the balance of power in the Balkans. In 1577, at the Battle of Kumanovo, Jakab III, the brother of the now-deceased Jakab II, was utterly humiliated, opening the floodgates for a Byzantine reconquest of Serbia and Bulgaria. This was followed by the Seventh Jakabite War (1582 - 1585), which saw the reconquest of Bosnia and the returning of Wallachia and Moldavia, Croatia, and Istria as vassals. To the Byzantines, the Jakabite Wars had been concluded, as while Imperial Hungary lingered in the background, it had more or less been neutered as a threat.
This belief abruptly came to an end in 1589, when Theodore IV expired. What followed was a period known as the Decade of Four Emperors, a period marked by high levels of political instability within the empire, as Theodore's sons competed for the position of Emperor. This resulted in the Hungarians being able to penetrate the Hungarian-Byzantine border, reconquering Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia.
17th - 18th Centuries[]
In 1599, Isaac II came to the Byzantine throne, reigning as the last ruler of the Caerularid Dynasty. When he died, the throne passed through Simon I of Wallachia through a mid-1550s royal marriage. The House of Molivesti now ruled Byzantium.
Simeon I (his Hellenized name) inherited the issues with Imperial Hungary. He waged war with the Hungarians (under Stephen, Emperor of the Hungarians) in the Byzantine-Hungarian War of 1609-1611. Stephen was heavily incompetent and within the first year of fighting, all of the Balkans had been retrieved. However, Simeon aimed higher. In his eyes, the Hungarians were too much of a threat to be left independent, as they had constantly caused trouble empire. He ordered his troops to continue fighting, as Hungary needed to be subdued in its entirety. By this point, Hungary had been destabilized due to ineffective and inept leadership spurring from the death of the older and experienced generations of leadership. As the Byzantine army marched ever closer to Buda, numerous Hungarian nobles succeded from the empire, swearing allegiance to Simeon and aiding him in his conquest of Hungary. On April 2, 1611, Stephen surrendered. With the signing of a pen, the Roman Empire now stretched from Bratislava in Slovakia to Aden in Yemen.
Constantine XIV commanding troops in the Eighty Years War.
Under Andreas I, the empire's new Hungarian possessions were consolidated and integrated into the empire. It was around this time that the Eighty Years War was raging in Europe. Andreas, I opted to not intervene, not seeing any potential in a Byzantine entry into the conflict. His successor, Andreas II, had a different view of the conflict. He saw it as a chance to flex Byzantine muscle and eagerly and perhaps rather brashly entered into the conflict in 1637, proving himself to be an excellent military tactician and general. He made great use of gunpowder and made huge gains in the war. He died in combat in 1645 and was succeeded by his son, Constantine XIV, who accompanied his father in his campaigns. This resulted in him having equal military experience, leading him to victory. He expired in battle and was succeeded by his only child, Paulina II.
Apollonia I.
Paulina bore two children, Apollonia, and Helena before dying from complications of her last birth. This means that Apollonia became Empress, under the regency of Constantine XV. Apollonia is a highly controversial monarch. Her reign saw the reconquest of Rome, the neutering of most of Rome's advisories, and the empire becoming the greatest empire at the time, however, millions perished under her rule, particularly religious dissidents such as Catholics and Muslimas. She expired in 1726 and was succeeded by Angelos I.
The 18th century would see Byzantium get more involved in continental politics. The empire engaged in multiple European/global conflicts, most notably the Twenty Years War, from 1753-1772 under Constantine XVI. While a nominal victory for Byzantium, it was at a heavy cost.
In 1821, the Roman Revolution occurred, massively curtailing the powers of the Byzantine Emperor enormously. A constitution was written and greater powers were granted to the Byzantine Senate.
Industrial Era - Present[]
1825 sketch of factories located across the Golden Horn
The Industrial Revolution first began in England in the mid 18th century and the technology soon spread outwards. The first Byzantine mill was documented to be in Athens in 1792 followed by another one founded between 1811 and 1812. From there, the industrial revolution quickly spread across the empire. This has mainly been attributed to Byzantium's strong merchant class and mercantile tradition. The population of already bustling cities swelled and, similar to every other country that experienced the revolution, life in the empire was changed. The empire grew larger and by 1910, it encompassed nearly all of Eastern North Africa, and much of the Middle East, though it had lost most of its European possessions as a result of Italian and Muscovite incursions.
This age of prosperity was abruptly ended by the Scandinavian War, which although saw the reconquest of much of the Balkans, also saw the devastation of the relatively Agrarian Egypt & Tartary, which provided much of the empire's food supply. A brief famine ensued and food rationing had to be implemented. The Byzantine Economy, in general, had been destroyed by the conflict. War once again erupted in the 1950s, a conflict dubbed as the Great War. Millions of Roman lives were lost in the conflict all for what many have deemed an inconclusive end. Minor territorial concessions were made and some reperations were paid, however nothing much changed.
Some have said that the empire has been in a state of decline since then, with its influence over European politics decreasing and with separatism within the empire growing. Regardless, the empire today is still somewhat powerful, maintaining considerable power and global influence on the global stage. It has retained most of its colonial possessions and set to continue to be a great power well into the future. However, renewed violence in the Balkans may alter the path the empire takes.
Demographics[]
Skyline of Constantinople.
According to the 2020 Byzantine Census, the empire's total population was 153 million people. The country has a fertility rate of 3.6, a number much higher than other European nations, primarily due to their holdings of impoverished areas in the Middle East and Africa. More than 75% of Romans dwell in urban areas. Much of the Byzantine population is centered in Anatolia, which has recently seen in an explosion in its population, economy, development, and more. The most populated city is the heart and soul of the empire: Constantinople, with a whopping 21 million people, or 7.3% of the empire's total population. Following Constantinople is Nicea (15 million), Adrianople (10 million), Nicomedia (9 million), and Athens (7 million). Adrianople, Constantinople, Nicomedia, and Nicea join together to form the Marmaran Megalopolis, a region with a combined population of 55 million people in an area of only 15,821.13 mi² (40,976.55 km²).
Religion[]
The Hagia Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople, a symbol of the empire, the city, and Eastern Orthodoxy.
From 1054 to today, the official religion of Rome has been the Eastern Orthodox Faith. According to the government's own statistics, 82% of Byzantines identify as Eastern Orthodox, while 13% identify as Muslim and the rest is split. Territorially, Eastern Orthodoxy prevails in almost every part of the country, with Islam only having a foothold in and around the holy city of Mecca. This is as a result of centuries of religious intolerance and conversion promoted by rulers such as Apollonia and the like. Byzantines are the most religious people on the planet, with 27% of responders stating they hey are "highly religious." Just 1.4% state that they never attend a shrine of worship.
Besides Eastern Orthodoxy and Islam, 3.2% identify as Atheist/Agnostic/non-believer, and Jews make up 1.2%. Catholics make up only 1.8% of the total population, a number that used to be as high as 40% in 1677, the year Apollonia officially became empress of the empire. Greek Hellenism has been recognized as a religion by the Byzantine Government since 2013 and has 2,000 active followers.
Language[]
The Roman Empire language from its formation in 27 BC to the reign of the emperor Heraclius was Latin. Under Heraclius, Greek was made the empire's official language and remained that way until Apollonia's conquest of Rome in the 1680s. As Rome was under the control of the empire once more, the Sun Emperess decreed that Latin was to be the co-official language of the empire. Following the collapse of Byzantine holdings in Italy in the 19th century, Emperor Constantine XIX reversed this action in 1956, and since then, Greek has been the only official language.
As a result of the Kinsi, Rome is relatively homogenous linguistically. Greek is known by 97% of the population and by law, Byzantine schools are mandated to teach Greek to their students. Besides Greek, Arabic is known by 34% of the empire's population and numerous South Slavic languages comprise 20% of the empire. Latin today is nominally spoken in the Byzantine Court and Senate, however only occasionally used informal occasions. Pontic Greek is also spoken within the empire, predominantly in the Pontic Theme and Kaffa, where large portions of Pontic Greeks settled beginning in the age of antiquity.
Education[]
The Romans have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Roman and Hellenistic world. The University of Constantinople was established in the fifth century and was Christian Europe's first center of secular learning.
Compulsory education in Byzantium comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are now compulsory for any child above four years of age. Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts for three years.
University of Antioch.
Byzantium's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, Genikό Lykeiό) and technical–vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE"). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK") which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education.
According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education "Highest Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ") consists of two parallel sectors: the University sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio.
The empire's two major universities are the aforementioned University of Constantinople and the National School of Athens .
The Byzantine education system also provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. There are also specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education.
Seventy-two percent of Greek adults aged 25–64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly higher of the global average of 67%. In the Global Testing Scores Program (GTSP), Byzantium scored 489, slightly below the global average of 496.
Culture[]
Mosaic of Christ in the Pammakaristos Church, Constantinople. Religion has served as a core fundamental of the Byzantine identity for thousands of years, influencing its governmental system and cultural output.
Byzantine culture is often seen as an amalgamation of Greek and Roman culture, a position that means it has thousands of years of cultural history. Formed through Mycenean Greece and Ancient Rome, which in turn progressed into Classical Greek and Classical Roman, which began to morph during the era of the Roman Empire, and continued under the empires eastern continuation. Other influences, such as the Franks, Italians, and Slavs, began to influence the empire during the Middle Ages, and as the Early Modern Era progressed, the empire established further connections with Western Europe, allowing for greater exchange of ideas between east and west. The country is seen by many as the birth of the Renaissance and has played a major role in intellectual movements throughout history.
Visual Arts[]
Literature and Theatre[]
Philosophy[]
Music and Dance[]
Cuisine[]
Sports[]
Cinema[]
Political Structure[]
The Great Palace of Constantinople, the official residence of the Byzantine Royal Family. Photographed prior to its infamous bombing in May of 2020.
Byzantium is a constitutional monarchy and has been since the Roman Revolution of 1821. It has a constitution that contains a total of 350 articles and has been revised 13 times (1822, 1854, 1921, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1977, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, and 2020). The constitution provides the layout of the Byzantine government, which is divided into three parts: the Executive (the Imperial Court), the Legislative (the Roman Senate), and the Judicial (the Roman High Court) The official head of state of the Byzantine Empire is the Emperor and has been for the entirety of the Roman Empire's existence. The current emperor is Constantine XXI, who is from the House of Molivesti-Pontus, the royal house that has ruled Byzantium since 1601. Once a fully autocratic position, the Roman Revolution curtailed the emperor's authority greatly, with the position now only involved in the approving of the legislature and international relations.
The President of Rome is a member of the Executive branch and the "co-head of the state" with the emperor. He too also participates in foreign relations and enacting and enforcing the legislature, however, he also is involved in the Byzantine Senate.
The Roman Senate is a large body of over 3,000 senators heralding from various parts of the empire. Each theme receives 100 senators, with each senator being assigned to a location with roughly 1% of the theme's population. Parliamentary elections are held every six years as a part of the General Roman Elections, however, the emperor is allowed to temporarily dissolve the senate as a result of a widely controversial 2014 constitutional amendment supported by emperor Constantine XXI. The Senate is headed by the Byzantine Prime Minister, (Constantine Alexopoulos as of May 14, 2018), who also succeeds the President if he expires. The voting age was 21 from 1821 to 1823, 25 from 1823 to 1954, 18 from 1954 to 1977, 15 from 1977 to 2003, and 21 from 2003 to the present. Romans display a modest attitude towards voting with only 71% being active voters, below the global average of 75%.
History[]
When Rome was first founded by Romulus in 753 BC, the small, impoverished city-state was a kingdom. This ended in 509 BC when the last Roman King was deposed and a Senate for the People (SPQR) was established in its place. The Roman Senate can trace its roots to that historically critical moment. The Senate would continue to play an increasing rule in Roman politics until the latter half of the first century BC, when the autocratic empire was established under Augustus. The title of emperor, be it linguistically or physically, can trace its roots to that moment. The Roman Senate slowly faded into irrelevancy as the emperor would be the sole ruler of Rome until the 19th century. This became apparent under the reign of Diocletian, who successfully attempted to recognize that the empire was no longer a republic.
Under Constantine I "the great," the current Byzantine Senate, based in Constantinople, was established. The capital of the empire was moved to Constantinople (then known as Byzantium [hence the Eastern Empire's namesake], and initially renamed Nova Roma [New Rome]). As the empire slipped further into decline, the west began to fragment as barbarian rulers invaded. The Roman Senate based in Rome would still persist for some time, being reinvigorated by Justinian I following the reconquest of Rome. However, following the collapse of Byzantine rule in Italy, the senate once again faded into irrelevancy, both in Rome and Constantinople.
Under Heraclius, the emperor's official title was devoted as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans," a switch from the former title of Augustus that had prevailed since 27 BC. This title is still used by the Byzantine Emperor to this day. Heraclius is also attributed to some to be the one to establish the Theme System.
In 1323, concerned over the empire's growing food crisis, Constantine XIII summoned the Roman Senate to aid him in easing the food shortages. While not realized at the time, this would launch the Restoration of the Senate, a period where the senate would slowly increase its relevancy in Byzantine politics lasting from the 14th centuries and officially ending in the late 15th century, though it has been argued that it ended in the late 17th century. The senate became increasingly a force to be reckoned with, becoming a major governmental organization in their own right. This was shown in the 1632 Congregation of the Byzantine Senate, the first senatorial congregation to be held without authorization from the emperor. As the emperor at the time, Andreas I, was in poor health at the time, the senate was able to go relatively unpunished for their actions.
Senatorial power was ultimately crushed in the late 17th century by the absolutist Apollonia, who feared that the Senate would ultimately challenge her power. Future emperors failed to restore the senate for about a century following Apollonia's death in 1726 until the Roman revolution, which established the guidelines and layout for the Roman Government as mentioned above.
Political Factions[]
Entrance to the Byzantine Senate.
Officially, the Byzantine Senate, under the 1956 constitutional amendment, prohibits the formation of political parties. However, de facto political parties known simply as factions have arisen within the Imperial court and senate. Prior to the abolition of political parties, they were three major political parties in Rome: the Coalition of Eastern Orthodox Christians (Greek: Συνασπισμός Ανατολικών Ορθόδοξων Χριστιανών [Synaspismós Anatolikón Orthódoxon Christianón]), dubbed simply by its acronym, the SAOC, a religious, right-wing group, the Great Leauge of Liberal Democrats, (Greek: Μεγάλη Λέγκα των Φιλελευθέρων Δημοκρατών [Megáli Lénka ton Filelefthéron Dimokratón]), or the MLTFD, a left-leaning, somewhat anti-monarchist and capitalist political party, and the Community of Romans (Greek: Κοινότητα Ρωμαίων [Koinótita Romaíon]), sometimes referred to as the KR, a hardline nationalist political organization that advocated for the "Μόνο η Ρώμη" policy. MLTFD was often triumphant in general elections, primarily due to the similarities in SAOC and KR's political views. There was also a Communist Socialist Workers Party (Σοσιαλιστικό Εργατικό Κόμμα [Sosialistikó Ergatikó Kómma]) or SEK, and a Contrarlexist Party known as the Advocacy of Reverse Oppression (Greek: Υπεράσπιση της αντίστροφης καταστολής [Yperáspisi tis antístrofis katastolís]), or the YTAK. In 1956, two years following the highly controversial and heated Byzantine General Elections of 1954, the emperor, Constantine XIX, decreed that all political parties were to be disbanded. However, this did not prevent political alliances from forming and de facto parties began to sprout as soon as the decree was enacted. The four major factions in the Byzantine Senate are the SAOC, MLTFD, KR, and the YTAK, re-established versions of the political parties that preceded them. Currently, the President and Prime Minister are members of SAOC, while the emperor expresses sympathy with KR. KR dominates the Anatolian and Middle Eastern cities, SAOC supporters are predominant in the Anatolian countryside and Crimean steppe, MLTFD prevails in the cities around the Agean and in Greece, and YTAK is popular in the northern Balkans.
Law and Justice[]
Supreme Court of the Kritai katholikoi.
The Byzantine Empire's Judicial system is independent from the Legislative and Executive branch of the government. It is headed by the Kritai katholikoi, a tribunal of 12 court justices who oversee court cases of national concern. It was established by Constantine XIII in 1323. The number of justices was reduced to four by Demetrios I in 1444 but was raised back to 12 by Apollonia I in 1687. Its headquarters are on the isle of Marama, which has been territorial been a part of Constantinople since 1598, however it was moved to Rome following the conquest of the city in 1687. Since 1878, it has once again been headed from Constantinople. The empire had a national police force from 2004 to 2013, after which it was abolished in favor of the military.
Administrative Divisions[]
The aforementioned Theme System, formed by Heraclius, is the primary subdivision of the empire. In total, the Roman Empire consists of 30 themes, in addition to five territories.
| Name | Number | Capital |
|---|---|---|
| Thrace | 1. | Adrianople |
| Macedonia | 2. | Thessaloniki |
| Thessaly | 3. | Boeotia |
| Athens | 4. | Athens |
| Morea | 5. | Patras |
| Agean Archipelago | 6. | Rhodes |
| Serbia | 7. | Belgrade |
| Bulgaria | 8. | Taranavo |
| Eastern Adriatica | 9. | Durrës |
| Optimatoi | 10. | Chalcedon |
| Opsicia | 11. | Cyzicus |
| Thracesia | 12. | Smyrna |
| Lycia | 13. | Attaleia |
| Pisidia | 14. | Polybotos |
| Seleucia-Isauria | 15. | Seleucia |
| Bucellarian-Galatia | 16. | Ancyra |
| Paphlagonia | 17. | Amastris |
| Cappadocia | 18. | Koron |
| Armeniac Theme | 19. | Euchaita |
| Pontus | 20. | Paipert |
| Cilicia | 21. | Mopsuestia |
| Armenia | 22. | Manzikert |
| Syria | 23. | Aleppo |
| Assyria | 24. | Mosul |
| Mashriq | 25. | Kuwait |
| Red Coast | 26. | Angelonople |
| Holy Land | 27. | Jerusalem |
| Egypt | 28. | Alexandria |
| Cyprus | 29 | Nicosia |
| Crimea | 30 | Kaffa |
Military[]
The Imperial Roman Military is headed by the Imperial Board of National Defense. It consists of five branches:
- The Imperial Army
- The Imperial Aviation Force
- The Imperial Navy
- The Imperial Marine and Coast Gaurd
- The Imperial Special Forces
- The Imperial Military Police Force
- The Constantinople Military Force (De facto local police force of Constantinople since February 29, 2020, and a branch of the IMPF)
Byzantine military personnel numbers at six million (or about 4% of the total imperial population), primarily as a result of five-year compulsive military service for men between the ages of 15 to 30. Women are also expected to perform two years of military service as of 2017. Out of the 6 million troops, only 1.3 million are active, mainly participating in military drills with Byzantium's allies, border operations along the Persian and Muscovite border, and as of May 2020, maintaining Byzantine Control in the Balkans. The country spends $567 billion on its military or about 6.2% of its total GDP.
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Economy[]
Bank of Rome in Constantinople.
The Byzantine economy is the fourth largest on the globe and has the fifth-largest in PPP, with a PPP of $792 billion. The empire is ranked eighth in GDP per capita, with it being $71,895.42. The country considered to be a developed country, though some question this as the development levels vary significantly in the empire. In general, Anatolia and Europe are fairly developed, with 62% of the empire's wealth being based within those particular areas and an exceptional standard of living, while much of its near eastern possessions being fairly undeveloped, save for northern Egypt, the Holy Land, and small exclaves of Greek settlements in Arabia. Despite this, this region of the empire contributes significantly to the economy, particularly for its trade and petroleum fields. Unemployment stood at 2% in 2020, or about 1.3 million people. The country is ranked 27th in unemployment.
Trade[]
Historically, particularly in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period, the Byzantines have been known for the mercantile and economic prowess. Its strong merchant class played a significant role in is industrialization and it has always been in competition with nearby mercantile powers. Constantinople's central location on the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, has generated the empire immeasurable wealth, especially in the Middle Ages.
Today, the country is amongst the largest exporters on the globe, due to its diverse industrial sector and its retaining of its economic prowess. The country makes $1.3 trillion from exports and is a leader in numerous industries.
Economic Sectors[]
Petroleum Industry[]
Anatolian Petroleum Drill.
The Roman Empire is a global leader in the petroleum industry, primarily as a result of its large oil deposits sprinkled throughout its Asian and North African possessions. The country produces 20 million barrels of petroleum per day, close to 25% of total global production, and exports a little over 56% of it to foreign nations.
The empire is the predominant power in the Persian Gulf, has seized much of the coastline surrounding it. This has proved beneficial as much of the global petroleum supply passes through this region and thus this has provided an immeasurable source of wealth for the Byzantine government. It has also stirred up conflict with Persia however, and minor conflicts over petroleum occasionally flare-up between the two nations.
Though a leader in the petroleum industry, the country has been rather slow in adapting to the new climate created as a result of the Shale Revolution, primarily due to lobbying from traditional petroleum corporations.
Agriculture[]
As a whole Rome is also a leader in agriculture. Its main sources of food originate domestically, mainly Anatolia, Crimea, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Percentage-wise, Anatolia provides the most, with the region providing 55% of the empire's agricultural output, while Mesopotamia provides the lowest at 13%. Egypt, historically the breadbasket of the Roman Empire, when compared to their Anatolian and Crimean counterparts, rank quite low at only 18%, while Crimea provides about 27%, a percentage that has been rising since the Crimean Wars of the 17th and 18th Centuries.
Through the 2010s, the Roman Empire has been ranked exceptionally high in cotton production, with it only being occasionally behind Muscovy in cotton production. The country ranks second in the growing of pistachios and ranks third in the production of rice, olives, figs, almonds, tomatoes, and watermelons, and fourth in the production of tobacco Agriculture employs 12% of the Byzantine population and amounts for 15.5% of its total GDP.
Maritime[]
Byzantine Supertanker Παίκτης πετρελαίου, the largest petroleum tanker ever built. The empire wields 13.4% of the worlds total merchant fleet, which arguably makes it the second largest controller of merchant fleets.
The Byzantine maritime industry has been a key element in the Byzantine economy since the Middle Ages and still plays a substantial role in the imperial economy. The country wields the second or third largest share of the world's merchant fleets, mainly based originating from Kaffa, the Agean, and the Persian Gulf. The country has a significant shipbuilding industry and a considerable fishing industry in addition to that.
Other[]
Marble quarry located in Thasos Island.
Besides tourism, other economic sectors that form a considerable, if not an integral part of the Byzantine economy include banking, construction, textiles, mining, machine industry, and iron and steel. The official national bank of the Roman Empire is the Bank of Rome (pictured above). The listed economic sectors combined make up 26.7% of the country's GDP.
Infrastructure[]
Transportation[]
As the gateway from Europe to Asia and the Mediterranean to the Black Sea (and vice versa), the Byzantine Empire has historically been Eurasia's transport hub. Since the 1850s, the Byzantine government has improved the quality of the imperial road networks substantially, including establishing a national motorway known as the Aftokratorikós aftokinitódromos (Imperial Motorway), known commonly by its acronym in both English and Greek as the AA.
A Byzantine Monorail in Constantinople.
The Romans have also led significantly in mass transit, in particular, being staunch advocates for monorails. The famed Imperial Monoway was constructed by the Byzantines from 1977 to 2013, essentially a national highway network built for monorails. The Byzantine Government has also shown interest in Ultrahoop, a hypothetical mode of transport first conceived by British physicist Theo Davis.
Energy[]
Electricity consumption within the Byzantine Empire. Darkest Red = 1 trillion KWH, Dark Red = 500 Billion KWH, Red = 300 Billion KWH, and Pink = <100 billion KWH.
The country is the third-largest consumer of energy only behind France and China.
The country's energy supply is headed by the Imperial Energy Administration (commonly referred to as the DAE in Byzantium). The DAE itself is broken down into various sub-organizations, primarily the Department of Electricity (TIE), the Commission of Fossil Fuels (EOK), the Nuclear Usage Department (TPC), and the Environmental Protection Agency (OPTP). The country announced in 2015 that it was moving towards Nuclear Energy as a replacement for fossil fuels, a move that sparked widespread controversy domestically and internationally. Currently, Nuclear Energy only accounts for about 12.3% of the country's energy, however, while Green energy accounts for 21.1%, and fossil fuels account for 65.5%.
Water and Sanitation[]
Every portion of the empire north of Cairo has universal access to high-quality water. Responsibility for water supply and waste is mandated by the states by imperial decree, who themselves usually place the burden of responsibility on the municipalities. This has sparked widespread debate over how much the imperial and national government should meddle in local political and social affairs.
For most of the European possessions, the primary source of water is from the Danube or the Agean. Crimea mainly relies on the numerous reservoirs northeast of the Crimean peninsula, whilst Anatolia mainly relies on the Mediterranean or Black Seas or local rivers. Similar practices are seen in much of the Middle East and North Africa.
Telecommunications[]
Internet café in Athens, Byzantium.
Internet connection across the empire is universal, There are two million kilometers (1.4 million miles) of fiber optics across the empire, mainly concentrated in the northern empire. Over 72% of people in the 2020 Byzantine Census stated that they used the internet regularly, below the global average of 87%, though internet usage varies across the empire, with Northerners tending to use it more than Southerners. Internet cafés are commonplace, with it being reported in 2015 that 90% of all blocks in Byzantium have a building that provides free internet access to the populous. 5G and recently, 6G has seen continued growth in prominence within the empire, with 82% of Romans stating that they use 5G and 3% stating that they use 6G, primarily wealthier citizens that can currently afford the technology.
Tourism[]
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Tourism plays a significant role in the Byzantine economy, with it accounting for a solid quarter of the Byzantine GDP. The country welcomed 62.8 million people in 2016. The vast majority of visitors are from Europe, accounting for about 45.7% of tourists, followed by North and South Columbians (31.2%), and Middle Easterners (13.35%). The most visited cities in order of most visitors are Constantinople (57 million tourists), Athens (43 million tourists), Thessaloniki (34 million tourists), Smyrna (32 million tourists) and Alexandria (30 million), though if religious pilgrims are included, Jerusalem is placed slightly above Smyrna (33 million).
Geography[]
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Physical Map of the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantium is located in Southeastern Europe, the northern and western Middle East, and North Africa. Located at the crossroads of Afro-Eurasia, the country is indeed located in a strategically critical location, at the crossroads between all four continents. European Byzantium, which is the smallest of the three areas (European, Asian, and African Byzantium), is separated from Asian Byzantium via the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, which itself is separated from African Byzantium via the Suez Canal.
The country borders Iberia's colonies in North Africa, as well as the British colonies in central Africa, Arabia, Persia, the southernmost Caucasian colonies, Muscovy, Hungary and its vassal states of Croatia, Wallachia, and Moldavia, plus Italy through it's vassal of Istria.
Elevation varies greatly. Anatolia and the Balkans are heavily mountainous in addition to the Red Coast, Abyssinia and the country's far-western territories (the Maghreb).The Carpathians are technically somewhat apart of the empire through the Romanian vassals. The tallest mountain is Mount Ararat in the Theme of Armenia.
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Cappadocia is a region created by the erosion of soft volcanic stone by the wind and rain for centuries.
The country's major rivers are the Danube, the Dnieper, the Halys, Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Nile. The vast majority of the country's coast is along the Mediterranean with additional coastlines in the Black Sea, as well as the Red Sea and Persian gulf.
The country is home to numerous natural resources, such as petroleum and minerals.
Biodiversity[]
Anatolian Shepherd
The country's sheer size and geographical variation has produced extraordinary biodiversity. The empire is primarily apart of the Boreal Kingdom, however, portions of the southern fringes of the empire are apart of the Pleotropic Kingdom.
Climate[]
The climate of the Byzantine Empire varies greatly. The coastal Anatolian and Balkan regions mostly have a Subtropical Mediterranean climate. Much of the more inland parts of the empire north of the 20th parallel have similar climates. Territories south of the 20th parallel have a tropical climate. Mountainous areas such as the Balkans have more temperate climates in more inland territories. The mountainous areas of Greece and the Anatolian Plateau see regular snowfall during the winter, often times quite severe.
Geopolitics[]
Foreign relations are headed by the ΜέγαςΔιπλωμάτης (Megas Diplomátis), who heads the Byzantine Ministry of Foreign Relations and Affairs. The Byzantine Empire is apart of the Union of Nations, the International Bank, and M10. The empire has relations with all 61 generally recognized nations. The country has a strong alliance with the German Empire, stretching back to 1837. The country's primary rival are the Rus, and has deteriorating relations with Italy and Persia. Roman foreign policy revolves around promoting Byzantine culture, political influence, and curtailing the rising power of the Rus.
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