Republic of Córdoba جمهورية قرطبة Timeline: An Honorable Retelling | ||||||
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Location of Córdoba (green)
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Capital (and largest city) | Córdoba | |||||
Official languages | Mozarabic | |||||
Religion | Islam | |||||
Demonym | Córdoban | |||||
Government | Unitary Islamic parliamentary constitutional republic | |||||
- | President | Abdul Jaleel el-Riaz | ||||
- | Prime Minister | Mayyaada el-Beydoun | ||||
Legislature | National Council | |||||
Establishment | ||||||
- | Muslim conquest of Iberia | c. 710 | ||||
- | Emirate | 750 | ||||
- | Caliphate | 929 | ||||
- | Current constitution | 1854 | ||||
Population | ||||||
- | 2022 estimate | 20,405,640 | ||||
Currency | Dirham (CDH ) |
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Drives on the | right |
Córdoba (Mozarabic: قرطبة), officially the Republic of Córdoba (Mozarabic: جمهورية قرطبة), is a sovereign country located in Western Europe. It is bordered by Castile and Portugal to the north, and Morocco to the south.
The Muslim conquest of Iberia began in the early 8th century, when the Umayyad Caliphate starting conquering parts of the peninsula. In 750, the Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and established the Abbasid Caliphate, while the Umayyads proclaimed the Emirate of Córdoba. In 929, the emirate was elevated to a caliphate. Córdoba had emerged as a regional power on the Iberian Peninsula, being responsible for the Islamization of the Basque people by the 10th century. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the caliphate oversaw a major loss in territory, and by 1250, peace was made, although a civil war erupted between rivalling factions. However, the victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa ensured the preservation of Córdoba as a state on the peninsula.
Córdoba was a major Islamic player in maritime affairs during much of the Age of Discovery. It made several ports in the Sea of the King, though none of them were permanently sustained. It maintained a lengthy personal union with Mexica from 1534 until the latter's independence in 1702. The nation's monarchy was abolished following the Revolt of Al-Harih in 1854. After half a century of relative isolationism, it intervened in the Castilian revolt against France in 1881, though later joined France militarily during the Third Great War, which saw the expulsion of the nation's authoritarian government, and the formation of a democratic parliamentary republic. It was a member of the Allied Powers during the Fourth Great War, and was an ally of the GTO during the Cold War, contrasting with its Spartacist neighbor Castile to the north.
Etymology[]
The name Córdoba has attracted fanciful explanations. One theory, suggested in 1799, is that the name comes from Punic qart ṭūbah "good town" as Córdoba was founded during Carthaginian Iberia. After the Roman conquest, the region's name was Latinised as Corduba. It is known in Arabic as Qurṭubah (Arabic: قرطبة).
History[]
Prehistory, antiquity and Roman foundation of the city[]
The area now known as Córdoba has a long and storied history, beginning with the first traces of human presence dating back to approximately 42,000 to 35,000 BC, evidenced by remains of Neanderthals. By the 8th century BC, pre-urban settlements had emerged around the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, with the local population gradually mastering copper and silver metallurgy. The first historical mention of a settlement in this region dates to the Carthaginian expansion across the Guadalquivir.

Roman consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, who settled the modern capital city of Córdoba in 169 B.C.
The Romans conquered Córdoba in 206 BC. By 169 BC, Roman consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the grandson of a previous governor of both Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior, founded a new settlement alongside the existing one. However, some sources contest this date, suggesting the settlement may have been established as late as 152 BC. Between 143 and 141 BC, the town was besieged by the Lusitanian leader Viriatus. By 113 BC, Córdoba had developed sufficiently to have its own forum. Around this time, the famous Córdoba Treasure, which reflects a blend of local and Roman artistic traditions, was buried in the city; this treasure is now housed in the British Museum.
Córdoba reached a significant milestone between 46 and 45 BC, becoming a Roman colonia under the name Colonia Patricia. In 45 BC, Julius Caesar sacked the city due to its loyalty to Pompey, but it was later resettled with veteran soldiers by Augustus. Córdoba subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Baetica, featuring a forum and numerous temples. It emerged as a major center of intellectual life in Hispania Ulterior, producing notable figures such as the philosopher Seneca the Younger, his father, the orator Seneca the Elder, and his nephew, the poet Lucan.
During the late Roman period, Córdoba was significantly influenced by Hosius of Corduba, also known as Bishop Ossius, who was a dominant figure in the Latin Church during the early 4th century. Later, Córdoba played an important role in the Byzantine Empire's Provincia Hispaniae from 552 to 572 before being conquered by the Visigoths in the late 6th century.
Visigothic period[]
With the rise of the Visigoths in the political arena of the Iberian Peninsula in 418 AD, the landscape of the region underwent significant changes. The Vandals, who had previously controlled parts of the territory, were expelled. The southern region of Andalusia, known for its strong Roman influence and the establishment of a powerful territorial oligarchy capable of fielding its own armies, held a distinctive character. This area, known as Baetica, was the last territory to be controlled de facto by the Visigoths and was notorious for its political instability. This instability is evidenced by the fact that in 521 AD, the pontiff appointed a vicar for Lusitania and Baetica to the metropolitan bishop of Seville (Sallust), suggesting that the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Tarragona did not effectively govern the southern regions.

Teudis, Visigothic king who ruled over Iberia from 531 to 548
In 531 AD, Visigothic King Teudis embarked on a rapid expansion towards the south, establishing his court in Seville to better manage operations in this part of the peninsula. He even led an unsuccessful campaign against Byzantine forces stationed in Settem (modern-day Ceuta). Despite these challenges, Baetica was eventually fully integrated into the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo. However, this integration was not without resistance; the interests of the Hispanic-Roman landed oligarchy often clashed with Visigothic authority, leading to rebellions by figures such as Athanagild and Hermenegild.
Athanagild's rebellion, backed by the Baetican oligarchy, invited Byzantine intervention under Emperor Justinian I, who sought to expand his influence in the region. The strategic importance of the Andalusian coast for Mediterranean trade prompted its incorporation into the Byzantine province of Spania. Nevertheless, the Byzantine foothold in Andalusia was short-lived, as the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo persistently aimed to reclaim the lost coastline. Successive campaigns led by Visigothic kings Leovigild and Suintila eventually re-established unified control over the Iberian Peninsula.
The Visigothic period was also marked by significant religious and cultural developments. Two prominent figures of this era, Leander of Seville and his brother Isidore of Seville, played crucial roles in shaping the religious and intellectual life of the time, primarily based in Seville. Their contributions were fundamental in defining the spiritual and cultural landscape of the Visigothic Kingdom.
Umayyad rule[]
In the midst of the power struggle between Rodrigo and the successors of Witiza, significant changes occurred in 711 AD, following the military incursion led by Tarik. This was marked by the Battle of Guadalete and subsequent campaigns by Musa, which resulted in the fall of Visigothic power and the subsequent Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. Some historians, including Ignacio Olagüe, argue this period might be better described as an Islamic revolution rather than a simple invasion. The Emirate of Córdoba was established during this period. Initially, it was politically and religiously dependent on the Ummayyad Caliphate of Damascus. However, in 756 AD, under Abd al-Rahman I, the emirate became independent in civil matters from the Abbasid Caliphate, transforming from a peripheral territory into a center of political decision-making. By the end of the independent emirate period, between 880 and 918 AD, Umar ibn Hafsun, born in the Kūra of Ronda, led a significant revolt against Cordovan authority. This period in al-Andalus was marked by continuous infighting, driven by the conflicting interests of diverse racial and religious communities, including Arabs, Berbers, Hispano-Romans, Mozarabs, Muladis, Jews, Slavs, and freed slaves from the northern peninsula and Central Europe.

Silver dirham of Abd al-Rahman III, minted in 946 AD
The height of Umayyad power in al-Andalus came in 912 AD with the proclamation of the Caliphate of Córdoba by Abd al-Rahman III, who declared himself caliph, thereby breaking religious dependence on the East. Although the territorial limits of al-Andalus exceeded those of present-day Andalusia, the Guadalquivir Valley remained the core of Muslim power in the peninsula. Córdoba, as the most populous city, served as the capital and was home to the Great Mosque and Medina Azahara, the royal city symbolizing new caliphal authority. To the north of the Guadiana River, the military regions of Mérida, Toledo, and Zaragoza frequently rebelled against central control.
The internal division fomented by Almanzor and their descendants, the Amirids, triggered a period of civil strife known as the fitna. This internal conflict led to the deposition of Hisham III and the abolition of the caliphate in 1031. As a result, the kūras, which were dominated by Arab, Berber, or Slavic clans, declared themselves independent, leading to the fragmentation of the Umayyad state into numerous smaller kingdoms known as the First Taifas. In this fragmented landscape, the Taifa of Seville emerged as a significant power. Under the rule of the Abbadid monarchs, al-Mutadid and his son al-Mutamid, Seville extended its dominions over southern Portugal, Murcia, and most of present-day Andalusia, with the exception of the taifa of Granada. The threat from the Castilian-Leonese kingdom grew significantly after Alfonso VI conquered Toledo in 1085. To counter this threat, the kings of Seville, Granada, Malaga, Almeria, and Badajoz formed an alliance and sought military assistance from the Almoravids. The Almoravids established themselves in Algeciras and, in coalition with the taifa kings, defeated the Christians at the Battle of Zalaca in 1086.
Despite this victory, new Christian offensives, such as the capture of the castle of Aledo, threatened the connections between Seville and its eastern territories. In response, the king of Seville once again sought help from the Almoravid emir Yusuf ibn Tashfin. Returning to the peninsula in 1088, Yusuf ibn Tashfin did not just fight the Christians but also conquered the individual taifas, imposing Almoravid rule throughout al-Andalus and establishing Granada as the capital. The Almoravids maintained control until the mid-12th century when the Almohad expansion in North Africa weakened their military capacity. This loss of strength led to the fragmentation of unity and the rise of the second Taifa kingdoms between 1144 and 1170.
The period saw further turmoil with the expedition of Alfonso the Battler, which was supported by the Mozarabs. In 1126, Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf decreed the deportation of a multitude of Christians to Africa. Many of these Christians managed to return to Castile two decades later, settling in Toledo. Those who remained in al-Andalus faced continuous harassment and were eventually forced, by decree of the Almohad sultan Abd al-Mumin, to emigrate to Castile and León or convert to Islam, under the threat of death and confiscation of their property. According to Francisco Javier Simonet, the tyranny of the Almoravids was so severe that the Muslims of Seville requested protection from Emperor Alfonso VII of León, agreeing to pay him tribute.
These taifas were eventually subdued by the Almohads, who established their capital in Seville. The Almohads managed to halt the Christian advance with notable victories such as the Battle of Alarcos in 1195. However, from the outset, they faced challenges in dominating the entire territory of al-Andalus, especially in Granada and Levante, where resistance, supported by Christians, persisted for many years under King Wolf. The tide turned dramatically when Pope Innocent III called for a crusade in al-Andalus. However, the failure of the Christian coalition at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 stalled remaining attempts to capitulate Islamic presence on the peninsula. Much later, a Portuguese attempt to seize the Algarves in 1249 ended in failure.
Age of Discovery and colonial era[]
Al-Andalus was reorganized into the Emirate of Córdoba once more in 1445, in order to avoid disputes with neighboring nations over its aristocracy. It allied with the Muslim powers during the Pilgrim Crusades. While having already had levels of tension with Mali over its settlements in Muqaddas, it established cordial relations to thwart frequent French and Castilian attempts to seize its colonial possessions. During this period, reforms aimed at improving the quality of life took place, seeing the abolition of the nation's feudal system which had put it at tensions with its Islamic allies. In 1534, Isabel Moctezuma, the daughter of Moctezuma of the Mexican Empire, agreed to marry Muhammad XVIII, Córdoba's monarch, who had recently come to the throne after the death of his father Muhammad XVII. Córdoban missionaries flooded into the country to spread their faith, which war-weary European powers were often unable to prevent. Córdoban naval strength remained prominent during this period, and it often resisted attempts by European powers to blockade its ports. Abiding by Mali's "Acceptance Doctrine", Córdoba frequently ensured that European powers never colonized large swathes of territory in Africa. Despite the long maritime distance, Córdoba and Mexica remained in personal union until 1702, when a popular revolt ousted the nation's Córdoban aristocracy.
Córdoba's attempts to colonize the Pacific were troubled with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a maritime power. The two nations clashed over the island of Formosa, culminating in Córdoba's expulsion from the island in 1642. The United Indies Company, which had managed most colonial affairs, was disestablished during this period. Subsequently, a revolt led by the native planting elite led to the independence of the Bribri Emirate in Columbia. Relations with Castile and Aragon were gradually normalized over the course of the 1700s, amidst the wave of secularism that had emerged from the Enlightenment. However, the loss of Mexica as an effective colony and trading partner, coupled with the unwillingness of non-Islamic nations to trade with it, resulted in Córdoba entering a period of isolationism. Its economic policies during this period have been compared to autarky by scholars, contrasting heavily with the mercantilist trade policies of the time.
19th through 21st centuries[]
A period of isolationism came to an end with the rise of the French Empire after 1804. Córdoba resisted French attempts to encroach upon its territory via its puppet in Castile, which it had formed with a dual invasion of it and Aragon in 1809. It pursued a policy of non-aggression with Portugal, which also opposed French influence following the latter's invasion of England. Its fleets, outdated and poorly-funded, were often unable to compete with French colonizers attempting to settle Algeria. However, it defended its southern coasts from an attempted French invasion in 1839, a period that has been commemorated as The Day of the Trials in the modern era. A period of political corruption ensued, due to the accumulation of wealth by the ipper classes, that resulted in the abdication of Ahmed IX in 1854, and the formation of a parliamentary republic. The new government retained prior alliances, and shunned attempts to align with France directly. In 1881, Córdoban troops entered Castile to assist in the overthrow of the French-aligned government. However, overtures to France began under Prime Minister Zayd Al-Farouq, which sought to extend relations in exchange for trade. This harmed relations with Mali and Portugal, who renewed their alliance in order to compete with the new government.
During the Third Great War, the Córdoban government assisted France. Over colonial disputes, France issued a declaration of war on Portugal, followed thereafter by Castile due to opposition to their naval policies as well as colonial disputes with the former. Largely, however, France was unable to actively enter Iberia proper due to geographic limits (the Pyrenees mountains), the lack of interest of the strategically important Basque government in joining the war on either side, and the concentration on stabilizing their holdings in Lublin. After a pro-Continental government under Sharif Al-Basul took power in January 1915, Córdoba declared its allegiance towards France, opening the Mediterranean campaign to both sides. However, a lack of military mobilisation and years of neutrality meant that Córdoba could not actively support its front, and it fell to Portuguese and Castilian invaders only three months later, though scattered pockets of resistance severely hampered the Allied occupation. Nonetheless, the invasion meant that English forces now had access to the important port of Gibraltar, which opened the mouth of the Mediterranean.
Following the conflict, Adil Ibn-Hamid. who came to power in 1924 following the establishment of a democratic system, enacted sweeping progressive reforms. The nation's oligarchs were exiled, and the nation adopted a strict policy of land value taxation, as present in the United States. Córdoba became the second nation after Ireland to decriminalize homosexuality in 1926, a feat which put it at odds with other majority Muslim nations. Authoritarian measures were enacted nonetheless to stifle a period of political violence known as Adam al-Astakrar, which lasted until the 1930s. Córdoba mitigated the Great Depression through deficit spending. It assisted the Allied Powers during the Fourth Great War, lending weapons to Castile's socialist factions to curb French invasions of the peninsula. After the war, it, alongside Portugal, allied with the GTO. Student protests in the late 1950s were brutally suppressed by the government, resulting in the collapse of the Conservative Party's popularity, and a period of liberal dominance that extended into the 1990s.
Modern era[]
Population growth in Córdoba extended greatly throughout the end of the 20th century. This was driven largely by immigration trends from the rest of Europe. For several centuries, Córdoba had been a haven for Sephardic Jews fleeing persecution in Castile and Portugal. In the contemporary era, this comprised largely of immigrants from Ukraine and England who had left their home nations due to political instability. The nation joined the European Community in 2005, and joined the League to Enforce Peace in 2012, after having abridged its membership application for several decades.
Economy[]
Gross domestic product[]
Traditionally, Córdoba has been an agricultural region, but the service sector, especially tourism, retail sales, and transportation, has become the dominant economic force. The construction sector, which flourished before being severely affected by the 2009 recession, also played a significant role in the region's economy. Compared to other Iberian regions, the industrial sector in Córdoba is less developed. From 2000 to 2006, the annual economic growth rate was 3.72%, one of the highest. However, the GDP per capita in Córdoba, at €17,401 in 2006, was the second-lowest in Iberia. In 2018, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 160.6 billion euros, making up 13.4% of the Córdoban economic output. The GDP per capita, adjusted for purchasing power, was 20,500 euros or 68% of the EU27 average that year.
Primary sector[]
The primary sector, although contributing the least to the regional GDP, remains significant, particularly in comparison to more developed economies. It accounts for 8.26% of the regional GDP, 6.4% of its GVA, and employs 8.19% of the workforce. Despite its numerical significance, the sector is considered somewhat uncompetitive in terms of productivity. Agriculture and other primary sector activities are deeply embedded in the local culture and identity. The primary sector encompasses various subsectors: agriculture, commercial fishing, animal husbandry, hunting, forestry, mining, and energy. Agriculture has been the cornerstone of Córdoban society for centuries. As of 2016, with 44.3% of its land cultivated and 8.4% of the workforce employed in agriculture, it continues to be a vital component of the Córdoban economy, although its significance is waning alongside the primary and secondary sectors.
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