China (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum)

Republic of China 至那民國 Timeline: Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum OTL equivalent: China proper
Flag Emblem
Motto:  天下為公 (Classical Chinese) ("All is equal under Heaven")
Anthem:  Ode to the National Flag
Location of China (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum) Location of China
Capital		Xi'an
Other cities		Shanghai, Beijing, Nanjing, Tianjin
Official languages		Standard Mandarin Chinese (de facto)
Other languages		Mongol; Manchu; Korean
Ethnic groups		Han Chinese; Hui Chinese; Mongols; Manchus; Tibetans; Koreans
Religion		Sinaism; Irreligion; Buddhism; Confucianism; Christianity; Islam; Taoism
Demonym		Chinese
Government		Unitary state; Semi-parliamentary dominant-party system
-	President	Wan Gang
-	Prime Minister	Chen Zhu
Legislature		National Assembly of China
Establishment
-	Founding of the Republic	January 1, 1912
Area
-	Total	4,719,522 km2  1,822,218 sq mi
Population
-	estimate	1,236,336,095
Currency		Chinese yuan (¥) (CNY)
Time zone		various (UTC+7 to +8)
Drives on the		left
Internet TLD		.cn, .至那
Calling code		+85

China (Chinese: 至那 Zhìnà), officially the Republic of China (Chinese: 至那民國 Zhìnà Mínguó), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. China bordered with Mongolia and Manchuria to the north, with Altishahr to the west, with Tibet to the southwest, and with India, Burma, Laos and Vietnam to the south. China is officially divided into 21 provinces and six direct-controlled municipalities of Beijing, Tianjin, Nanjing, Shanghai, Xi'an (national capital) and Chongqing. The national capital of China, Xi'an, has a population of 19 million.

China is the most populous country in the world, surpassing India, with a population exceeding 1.2 billion which representing 15.1% of the world population. It ranks as the fifth-largest country by land area, covering approximately 4,719,522 square kilometers (1,822,218 square miles). Contributing about one-fifth of the global economy, China holds the position of the fourth-largest economy worldwide. It is recognized as one of the fastest-growing major economies, the leading manufacturer and exporter, and the second-largest importer globally.

Politics and government

The National Assembly Hall in Xi'an.

The government of China is established on the 1948 Constitution of the Republic of China, according to the Three Principles of the People based on the teachings of Sun Yat-sen as well as the principle of National Democracy. According to the 1948 Constitution, the National Government of China (國民政府 Guómín Zhèngfǔ) consists of the President of the Republic and the five branches of government (五院 wǔyuàn; Five Yuans), namely the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Control Yuan, Judicial Yuan and Examination Yuan.

All members of the Five Yuans are elected by and responsible to the National Assembly from among its members every four years, except for Legislative Yuan which is elected every two years. The National Assembly of China (國民大會 Guómín Dàhuì) is the highest state organ of the Republic of China. Its consists of about 2500 delegates which are elected for four-year terms through a multi-tiered representative electoral system. Theoretically, the National Assembly is the supreme law-making institution. However, in practice the Assembly usually acts as a powerless rubber-stamp parliament for decisions already made by the ruling Chinese Solidarity Party (至那團結黨 Zhìnà Tuánjiédǎng).

The Presidential Palace, the official office of President of China, located at the foot of Mount Li, Xi'an

The President of the Republic of China (總統 Zǒngtǒng) is the head of state of China and nominal commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President is elected by the National Assembly every four years from among its members. Under the 1948 Constitution, the office of President is largely ceremonial and symbolic with limited powers and functions. In practice, however, the Presidency can be a powerful office if it is occupied by an influential individual within the political system such as the leader of the Chinese Solidarity Party.

The Executive Yuan (行政院 Xíngzhèngyuàn) is the executive branch of National Government and is presided by the Prime Minister of China (總理 Zŏnglĭ). It consists of the Prime Minister as its presiding officer, two Deputy-Prime Ministers, Ministers of State and various heads of state commissions. The composition of the Executive Yuan is determined by the recommendation of the President of the Republic and is approved by the majority of the Assembly.

The Legislative Yuan (立法院 Lìfǎyuàn) is elected every two years by the National Assembly from among its members. The Yuan exercises the legislative powers and acts on the behalf of the National Assembly in the interim of the parliamentary sessions. Although the Legislative Yuan has a function to exercise the powers of Assembly while the latter is not in session, the Yuan has no power to censure and supervise the other branches of the government. Such powers are specially vested on the Control Yuan.

The building of the Control Yuan at Xi'an.

The Control Yuan (監察院 Jiāncháyuàn) is based on the traditional Chinese censorate and has powers to supervise and inquire the other branches of the government. While the Constitution has bestowed the power to act on the behalf of the National Assembly on the Legislative Yuan, in fact the Control Yuan has more power regarding it. The Control Yuan has the powers to censure and impeach the members of other branches of National Government, including the Prime Minister, and is considered the most powerful branch within the Government.

The new building which housing the Judicial Yuan since 2004.

The Judicial Yuan (司法院 Sīfǎyuàn) is the highest judicial body in the Republic of China. The President and Vice-President of the Judicial Yuan and 15 Justices form the Council of Grand Justices. They are appointed by the National Assembly based on the recommendation from the President of the Republic. The highest court, the Supreme Court, consists of a number of civil and criminal divisions, each of which is formed by a presiding Judge and four Associate Judges, all appointed for life.

The Examination Yuan (考試院 Kǎoshìyuàn) is in charge of validating the qualification of civil servants in the Republic of China. It is based on the old imperial examination system used in pre-Republican China. While in theory the Examination Yuan has least importance compared with the other branches, in practice the Yuan has functions to maintain the civil service under the control of ruling Solidarity Party as well as to ensure the effectiveness and to eliminate inefficiency of national bureaucratic system.

History

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

Imperial expansion (1271–1285)

Kublai Khan (1215–1294)

In 1206, Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and was proclaimed Great Khan, initiating an era of unprecedented conquests. In 1251, his grandson Kublai was granted authority over Mongol-held territories in China and modeled his government on traditional Chinese bureaucracies. Kublai claimed the title of Great Khan in 1259, triggering a civil war that permanently divided the Mongol Empire. The western khanates—the Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate, and Ilkhanate—had become autonomous, with only the Ilkhans recognizing Kublai’s authority. After subjugating Korea in 1270, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, marking the first time China was fully ruled by a foreign power.

After securing northern China, Kublai combined Mongol and Chinese traditions in an ambitious expansionist campaign. He aimed to conquer the Southern Song dynasty and Japan. In 1274, his invasion of Japan failed when storms in Hakata Bay forced a retreat. By 1279, the Yuan army defeated the Southern Song at the Battle of Yamen, uniting China for the first time in centuries. With unification complete, Kublai Khan mobilized additional manpower to prepare for another campaign against Japan. Preparations for another invasion of Japan began in 1281, but Kublai delayed the campaign due to seasonal storms, postponing it until late winter. The second Yuan invasion of Japan began on February 13, 1282, and Mongol military pressure led to a coup against the Kamakura Bakufu. By June 1283, Emperor Go-Uda negotiated peace, making Japan a vassal of the Yuan dynasty.

Mongol invasion to Japan (1282)

Meanwhile, Yuan campaigns in Annam, Champa, and Java failed. The failed Java invasion, however, spurred the rise of Majapahit, which soon dominated the Indonesian archipelago. Under the Yuan dynasty, the Mongol Empire stretched from the present-day Soviet Union to Japan, controlling the entire Silk Road and facilitating unprecedented cultural and economic exchange. The Yuan managed their vast empire through an extensive road network and efficient postal system, while maritime trade thrived, making Quanzhou and Hangzhou the world’s busiest ports. Among the European travelers during this period, Marco Polo, a Venetian adventurer, spent decades in Yuan China and later captivated Europe with his vivid accounts of the Far East’s wonders in The Travels of Marco Polo.

Consolidation and stability (1285–1321)

The divisions of the Mongol Empire, ca. 1335.

  Yuan Dynasty

  Yuan Dynasty's vassals

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  Chagatai Khanate

  Chagatai Khanate's vassals

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  Ilkhanate

  Ilkhanate's vassals

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  Golden Horde

Kublai Khan had originally designated his eldest son, Zhenjin, as Crown Prince, but Zhenjin predeceased him in 1285. As a result, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, ascended the throne as Temür Khan, also known as Emperor Chengzong, ruling for about a decade after Kublai's death (1294–1307). Temür focused on preserving and building upon his grandfather's legacy. In 1304, he negotiated peace with the western Mongol khanates, which acknowledged his nominal suzerainty as Great Khan while remaining de facto autonomous. During his reign, neighboring states like Annam paid tribute to the Yuan dynasty for several decades. This period, known as Pax Mongolica, marked a time when the Mongols controlled vast territories spanning from Japan to eastern Russia and Mongolia to northern India.

During the Yuan era, Mongol rulers adapted to Chinese culture, but their sinicization was less pronounced compared to earlier conquest dynasties. To maintain their racial superiority as the conquering and ruling class, they upheld traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the Mongolian Steppe. At the same time, the Mongols flexibly embraced elements from various advanced civilizations across their vast empire. Under Pax Mongolica, China’s traditional social structures and culture experienced immense transformation. Foreign migrants who settled in China enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while also enriching local culture with diverse influences. Meanwhile, the scholar-officials and intellectuals, traditionally the custodians of elite Chinese culture, saw their social status diminish, fostering the growth of popular culture, such as vernacular novels and poetry.

A Buddhist stupa on top of an arch is a common form of architecture during this era.

Buddhism played a significant role in the Yuan government, with Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism leaving a deep impact on the cultures of China and Japan. Muslims introduced Middle Eastern innovations, including cartography, astronomy, medicine, and cuisine, while popularizing crops like carrots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, melons, high-quality granulated sugar, and cotton, not only to the Chinese domains, but also to Korea and Japan. During this period, Central Asian Muslims converted many Chinese in the northwest and southwest to Islam, resulting to the ethnogenesis of Hui identity. Meanwhile, Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism experienced toleration, though Taoism faced persecution in favor of Buddhism. The Yuan court reinstated Confucian practices and classical examinations, which had lapsed in northern China, to maintain social order among the Han population.

After 1279, the Yuan dynasty began experiencing financial troubles. Prolonged wars and ambitious construction projects had depleted the Mongol treasury. Despite this, Temür resisted placing additional fiscal burdens on the population, frequently granting tax exemptions across various parts of the Yuan territory. However, corruption started to take root during his reign. With the death of his only son, Deshou, in January 1306, Temür passed away in 1307 without leaving a male heir. The throne then passed to Khayishan, the son of his late elder brother Darmabala, who became known as Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong. Külüg’s short reign from 1307 to 1311 was marked by poor governance and financial mismanagement, further worsening the dynasty’s economic crisis. By the time of his death, the Yuan court was mired in debt, and public dissatisfaction had reached critical levels.

Decline (1321–1368)

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by famine, unrest, and a disillusioned populace. Over time, Kublai Khan's successors lost influence over other Mongol lands, as they were seen as overly Sinicized. Within China, later Yuan emperors had brief reigns plagued by intrigue and rivalries. Detached from governance, they failed to address growing unrest, leaving outlaws to ravage the countryside unchecked. The weakening Yuan armies could no longer maintain order, further deepening the empire’s decline. From the late 1340s, frequent droughts, floods, and famines devastated China, while government inaction eroded public support.

The Red Turban Rebellions (1351–1368) led to the collapse of the Yuan dynasty.

Abroad, Yuan vassals began breaking free from Mongol control. Emperor Go-Daigo's rise in Japan in 1320 led to the removal of Yuan administrators in an event called the Kemmu Restoration. In 1356, King Gongmin of Korea expelled pro-Yuan aristocrats and military officials and reclaimed Ssangseong and Dongnyeong Prefectures under the Goryeo sovereignty. At home, the Red Turban Rebellion erupted in 1351, growing into a nationwide revolt. In 1354, Toghun Temür dismissed his general Toghtogha, fearing betrayal, which weakened the Yuan's central authority. By 1368, as Ming forces closed in on Khanbaliq, Toghun Temür fled north but failed to retake the city and died in 1370. The Ming seized Yingchang soon after, forcing the Yuan remnants to retreat to Mongolia, where they continued as the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Liangchao era (1368–1670)

The rise of the Two Courts (1368–1402)

The Hongwu Emperor of Ming (1328–1398; r. 1368–1398)

Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant-turned-monk, had joined the Red Turban Rebellion since 1352 when he captured Nanjing in 1356 and established the city as his power base. After forcing the last Yuan emperor to retreat to Mongolia, Zhu established the new dynasty "Great Ming" (Dà Míng; 大明; "Great Radiance") and adopted the reign title Hongwu (洪武 "Vastly Martial"). His reign aimed at promoting Neo-Confucianism, including the meritocratic civil service system. Nevertheless, the emperor also displayed authoritarian tendencies. He abolished the Chancellery, directly assuming absolute powers to himself, and suppressed the scholar-official class, whom he deeply distrusted.

Conflicts during his reign extended to frontier regions, with significant military engagements against the Uyghur Kingdom of Turpan and Oirat Mongols. The Ming emperors also granted nominal titles to Islamic Salar leaders which ruled Tibet until 1652 but avoided direct administration or permanent garrisons, unlike their Yuan predecessors. Sporadic Ming interventions and Tibetan resistance characterized their uneasy relationship. Another region the Ming tried to subjugate was Yunnan. Between 1369 and 1375, the Hongwu Emperor repeatedly sent envoys to Yunnan, then ruled by the Bai kingdom of Dali (大理, Mandarin: Dà Lǐ; Bai: Tō Nhị; "Great Marble"), demanding its submission. In defiance, King Duan Gong of Yunnan adopted the reign title Thokhien (太清; "Utmost Purity") and made Dali a dynastic state in 1371. When the Hongwu Emperor launched an invasion of Yunnan in 1382, Thokhien's forces successfully repelled it, solidifying Yunnan's independence from China.

Emperor Thokhien of Li (1326–1399; r. 1371–1399)

Thokhien expanded his territory into Burma and Kamarupa, making Manipur, Kamata, and Ahom vassal states. In 1375, the Li forces defeated Bengal's Sultan Sikandar Shah at the Second Battle of Pandua, firmly establishing their presence in Hindustan. Although maintaining religious tolerance toward Islam and Hinduism, Buddhism became the dynasty's dominant ideology, with Thokhien and his successors viewed themselves as "chakravarti" (चक्रवर्तिन्; 轉輪聖王, Bai: djȗình-lū̀hn chèh-nguò; "wheel-turning sacred king") which actively promoting Buddhist values and sponsoring monasteries. Japanese monk Renka (1470–1536) noted that the Li rulers participated in public Buddhist worship and built stupas in every city and town. This era, known as the Era of Two Courts (兩朝時代 liàngcháo shídài), saw a parallel historical development in China with the Ming as the "northern court" (北朝 běicháo) and the Li as the "southern court" (南朝 náncháo).

Commercialization to isolation (1402–1565)

The Yongle Emperor of Ming (1360–1424; r. 1402–1424)

After overthrowing his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Di ascended the throne as the Yongle Emperor (1360–1424; r. 1402–1424), ushering in what historians call a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty by reversing many of his predecessor's policies. In 1405, he launched ambitious naval expeditions, commissioning Admiral Zhou Man to lead a vast fleet on international tributary missions. These missions showcased hundreds of enormous treasure ships and tens of thousands of crew, reflecting an unprecedented investment in state-sponsored maritime power. Under Yongle's reign, Ming China flourished as the world's strongest, wealthiest, and most populous nation, driven by his vigorous military and diplomatic pursuits. The Ming dynasty's control extended across the seas, from Korea to the Strait of Malacca, solidifying its dominance in East and Southeast Asia.

The expansion of maritime power by Li and Japan posed significant challenges to Ming dominance. Li, reliant on the Bay of Bengal trade route for their economy, bolstered their naval strength in 1406 when Emperor Khiennhuo commissioned Admiral Mä Khỏ to expand their fleet. Quickly establishing control over the Indian Ocean, the Li sent trade missions to Southeast Asian polities like Majapahit, aiming to secure trade routes, protect merchants from piracy, and contest Ming hegemony at sea. Meanwhile, by the early 15th century, Japan also expanded its naval influence southward, dominating trade routes through the Ryukyus, Takasago, and the Philippine Islands. In 1430, Emperor Seishō of Japan initiated diplomatic relations with Emperor Nhuoxiohn of Li, with both rulers recognizing each other as equals and addressing one another as "brotherly emperor" (胞帝, Bai: bāotī̀; Japanese: hōtei). This alliance aimed to counter Ming naval expansion and reinforce mutual interests at sea.

Li Imperial Palace complex in Dali, Yunnan, showcasing the Li architectural style.

During the Ming dynasty, China experienced a cultural renaissance, with literature, painting, poetry, music, and various forms of Chinese opera thriving, particularly in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley. This period saw the refinement of major Chinese novels into their mature forms, including Water Margin and Journey to the West, thanks to the efforts of literati scholars. Meanwhile, Yunnan reached its cultural zenith during the 14th century, blending influences from the Song dynasty with foreign elements from India. Li architecture showcased this fusion through features like curved roofs, corner towers, and intricate terracotta ornamentation, contrasting it with the Ming's more traditional and grand designs inspired by Tang and Song patterns. Li scholars also engaged with Hindustani epics such as the Mahabharata (大天竺書) and Ramayana (羅摩遊書), translating them into Classical Chinese alongside Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic religious texts.

20th-century illustration of a wokou raid at the Chinese coast.

The resurgence of Mongol threats in the 1430s and 1440s shifted Ming priorities, ending tributary missions by 1438 and steering their foreign policy inward by the 1470s. During this period, Japanese pirates, or wokou, raided Chinese ships and coastal settlements, although many raids were conducted by native Chinese. In response, the Ming imposed hai jin laws, closing coastal facilities and restricting trade to state-sponsored missions. While intended to curb piracy, this strict ban, enforced until 1567, pushed Chinese merchants into illegal trade and smuggling. On other hand, Li flourished as a bustling commercial hub, attracting merchants and religious scholars from across the region. In 1495, Renka, then studying at Magadha, recorded the vibrant Nihonmachi in Chittagong, the primary port of Li, along with diverse foreign communities, including Arab, Malay, Javanese, and Ryukyuan settlers in his travelogue.

The collapse of the empires (1565–1644)

Map of Macau Peninsula in 1639.

Despite a century of prosperity, Li eventually faced setbacks by the 16th century, including their decisive defeat by the Mughals at the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529 and subsequent losses to Sher Shah Suri, who drove them back to Burma. The Li empire's decline culminated in campaigns by Bayinnaung of Toungoo between 1550 and 1565, forcing their retreat to Yunnan and ending their dominance in the region. Meanwhile, Ming had reopened itself to the external trade by 1567 following the arrivals of European merchants. In 1557 the Portuguese managed to convince the Ming court to agree on a legal port treaty that would establish Macau as a Portuguese trade colony on the coasts of the South China Sea.

The Portuguese acted as intermediaries in trade between China and Japan, exchanging Chinese silks for Japanese silver, which was then used to acquire more silk in China. While silver dominated imports to China, the Chinese also bought New World crops from the Spanish, such as sweet potatoes, maize, and peanuts. These crops thrived in areas unsuitable for traditional staples like wheat, millet, and rice, contributing to population growth in China. Ming-Spanish trade relations were more cordial than those with the Portuguese, though some Spanish officials and friars sought to conquer and Christianize China under the Empresa de China plan. By 1589, the Spanish colonial officials in Manila coordinated with the Japanese on an invasion plan for China.

The encampment of Ming army during a decisive battle against the Spanish in Nanchang, 1590.

In 1590, Empress Go-Suikō of Japan invaded Korea as a prelude to attacking China. News of the Japanese invasion reached Manila in June 1590, prompting Spanish forces to launch their own invasion of China on September 5, concurrent with Japan's entry into Guandong. However, the Spanish faced challenges such as a lack of local support, stretched supply lines from Manila, and resistance from the Chinese population. After the Ming secured victory against the Japanese at Shanhai Pass, the Wanli Emperor (1563–1620; r. 1572–1620) led a massive campaign on October 25, 1590, to expel the Spanish from the south, aided by Portuguese Jesuits who secretly provided weapons and intelligence. The Ming counteroffensive drained Manila's resources, forcing the Spanish to retreat gradually from China.

In the final years of the Wanli Emperor's reign and during those of his successors, China faced an economic crisis driven by a sudden shortage of silver, the empire's primary medium of exchange, which drained by the wars with Japan and Spain. In 1639, Emperor Go-Konoe of Japan restricted foreign trade with European powers, cutting off a major source of silver and triggering widespread inflation in China. This financial strain was compounded by famines, increased taxes, military desertions, and the collapse of the government's relief systems. Additionally, natural disasters, including flooding and the government's failure to manage irrigation and flood-control projects, led to significant loss of life and societal instability. These combined factors greatly weakened Ming authority during the early 17th century, contributing to the dynasty's eventual decline.

Qing dynasty (1644–1912)

The rise of the Manchus (1644–1706)

The Taizong Emperor (1592–1643; r. 1636–1643), the founder of Qing Dynasty

In the 1580s, Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci began unifying the Jurchen tribes of the region, gradually consolidating control over most of Manchuria. By 1616, he declared himself khan and established the Later Jin Dynasty. His son, Hong Taiji, also known as Emperor Taizong (1592–1643; r. 1636–1643), continued his father’s legacy by expanding Jin authority into Outer Manchuria. In 1635, Taizong introduced the name "Manchu" as a new identity for the Jurchen people, and a year later, he renamed the dynasty as "Great Qing" (大清 Dà Qīng; "Great Clarity"). Taizong died in 1643 and was succeeded his five-year-old son who ascended as the Shunzhi Emperor (1638–1661; r. 1643–1661), with Taizong's half brother Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchus.

Dorgon enlisted discontented Han Chinese officials and soldiers, creating a new administrative structure modeled on existing Ming systems, which facilitated the rapid conquest of China. He introduced reforms to eliminate practices he viewed as outdated, such as curbing the political influence of palace eunuchs and banning foot-binding for Manchu women. However, he imposed the queue hairstyle on adult Han Chinese men, requiring them to shave the front of their heads and adopt the Manchu style as a symbol of loyalty, with refusal punishable by death. By the time of Dorgon’s death in 1650, the Manchus had politically and culturally consolidated their rule in China. Their authority was solidified after defeating the last Ming resistance on May 27, 1644.

The Kangxi Emperor of Qing (1654–1722; r. 1662–1722)

After the Kangxi Emperor (1654–1722; r. 1661–1722) ascended the throne in 1661, the Qing dynasty reached the peak of its social, economic, and military power. In 1662, the Qing defeated the rump Li state and absorbed Yunnan into the Greater Chinese political and cultural structure. As Yunnan was annexed by the Qing, a wave of Li refugees migrated to the Mekong Delta. Muslim refugees from Li established the settlement of Hoà Thiện (和善), in the present-day Cambodia-Vietnam borders, under the patronage of Sultan Ibrahim of Cambodia. In 1683, Qing forces gained control of Takasago, which had been used as a base against the Qing following its capture from Dutch colonists. In 1685, Qing invaded Korea, making the Joseon dynasty its tributary state. Determined to expand and secure Qing control in Central Asia, Kangxi led military campaigns against the Dzungars in Outer Mongolia between 1687 and 1697.

The Treaty of Nerchinsk, signed in 1689 between the Qing and Russia, established the Sino-Russian border along the Stanovoy Mountains and Argun River. By 1690, Qing influence extended to the Amur estuary, where they demanded tribute from local residents. To reinforce their dominance, Qing forces explored further, reaching the southern tip of Karafuto and crossing the frozen Sōya Strait to Ezo in January 1694, uncovering a potential entry route into Japan. This discovery was reported to the Kangxi Emperor in 1695, aligning with his aim to weaken Japan militarily and bring it under Qing control as a tributary state. After establishing an outpost in Ezo in 1698, the Qing launched an invasion of Japan in April 1706. Despite initial successes, the Qing forces were repelled by June and retreated to Ezo, marking the end of their campaign.

Domestic stability (1706–1839)

Prosperous Suzhou (1759) by Xu Yang, depicting the bustling urban life of Suzhou reflecting the prosperity of 18th-century China.

In 1721, the Kangxi Emperor banned Christian missionary work in China following the Chinese Rites controversy. This ban was reinforced by the Yongzheng Emperor (1678–1735; r. 1722–1735) in 1723, when he outlawed Christianity and expelled most missionaries. During his reign, Yongzheng established a strict autocratic style rule, detested corruption, and punished officials severely for offenses. He also promoted Confucian orthodoxy while suppressing unorthodox sects to consolidate ideological control. In 1729, Yongzheng issued an edict prohibiting the smoking of madak, a blend of tobacco and opium, reflecting his commitment to moral and social order.

As Yongzheng recognized the severity of the financial crisis, he abandoned his father’s lenient approach to local landowning elites and launched a campaign to enforce land tax collection. The additional revenues were intended to fund local projects such as irrigation, schools, roads, and charity, as well as to provide "money to nourish honesty" among officials. While these reforms found success in northern regions, they faced resistance in the south and the lower Yangzi valley, where Kangxi's policies had fostered strong alliances with elites. Yongzheng sent seasoned Manchu commissioners to uncover fraud in land registers and account books, but they encountered deception, passive resistance, and even violent opposition. Despite his efforts, the fiscal crisis remained unresolved.

The Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799; r. 1735–1796).

In 1735, Yongzheng's son, the Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799; r. 1735–1796), ascended the throne. Qianlong expanded Qing control into Altishahr and Mongolia and suppressed uprisings in Sichuan, southern China, and Tibet. He also initiated grand cultural projects, such as compiling the Siku Quanshu, the most extensive collection of Chinese books, but used literary inquisition to suppress dissent. By the end of Qianlong's reign, the empire had reached its peak, ruling over one-third of the world's population, boasting the largest global economy, and ranking as one of history's largest empires by area. Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were also marked by rampant corruption and neglect, contributed to the gradual downfall of the dynasty.

In 1796, Qianlong abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor (1760–1820; r. 1796–1820). For the next three years, however, the Jiaqing Emperor was emperor in name only, because decisions were still made by his father, who became the Emperor Emeritus (太上皇, Tàishàng Huáng) after his abdication. After the Qianlong Emperor's death in early February 1799, the Jiaqing Emperor assumed full control of the government and initiated a purge of corrupt officials who served under his father, including Heshen, Qianlong's favored official. When Heshen was executed, the Qing government discovered that his personal fortune exceeded the empire's depleted treasury, amounting to 900 million silver taels—equivalent to 12 years of the Qing imperial court's Treasury surplus.

European factories in Canton during the early 19th century.

During the 18th century, European empires expanded globally, driven by maritime trade, colonial extraction, and technological advancements. Confronted with emerging concepts of international relations, the Qing established the Canton System in 1756 to control maritime trade, limiting it to Guangzhou and granting monopoly trading rights to private Chinese merchants. European demand for Chinese goods like silk, tea, and ceramics required a steady flow of silver into China, leading Britain and France to grow concerned about trade imbalances. To counteract this, the British expanded opium production in Bengal to meet China's rising demand, using it to offset their silver outflows. Alarmed by the silver drain and the societal damage caused by opium, the Daoguang Emperor (1782–1850; r. 1820–1850) ordered the confiscation of British opium stocks without compensation.

Further readings