Indonesia (Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum)

Republic of Indonesia Republik Indonesia Timeline: Cherry, Plum, and Chrysanthemum OTL equivalent: Indonesia plus Timor Leste and Christmas Island
Flag Emblem
Motto:  Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese) ("Unity in Diversity")
Anthem:  Indonesia Raya
Location of Indonesia
Capital		Jakarta
Official languages		Indonesian
Other languages		Dutch; Javanese; Sundanese; Madurese; Minangkabau; Musi; Buginese; Banjarese; Acehnese; Balinese; Betawi
Ethnic groups		Javanese; Sundanese; Malays; Chinese; Madurese; Bugis; Minangkabau; Banjars
Religion		Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Traditional folk religions
Demonym		Indonesian
Government		Federal state; Semi-presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Gita Wirjawan
-	Vice President
-	Prime Minister
Legislature		People's Consultative Assembly of Indonesia
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	People's Representative Council
Establishment
-	Federation of Indonesia Agreement	August 17, 1947
-	Independence from the Netherlands	August 22, 1950
Population
-	estimate	238,000,000
Currency		Rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone		various (UTC+7 to +9)
Internet TLD		.id
Calling code		+62

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in South East Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands. It is populated by over 238 million people and is the world's fifth-most populous country. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea and North Borneo. Other neighboring countries include Malaya, Moroland, Australia, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural nation. There are over 300 ethnic groups and more than 700 living languages spoken in the country. The largest - and politically dominant - ethnic group are the Javanese.

Indonesia's economy is the world's 17th largest by nominal GDP and 7th largest by PPP as well as the largest economy in Southeast Asia. It is a regional power and a middle power in international affairs and is classified as a newly industrialised country. The country is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, D-8, and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, as well as the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and G20 (the only member in Southeast Asia).

Politics and government

The MPR complex building, the seat of Indonesian parliament.

The highest representative body at the national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR), consisted of an upper house (Senate) and a lower house (People’s Representative Council). The Senate (Senat) has both legislative and advisory functions. It has the rights to confirm to accept or reject legislative bills from the House of Representatives, but can not amend them. It can also propose bills related to states’ governments to the House, but has no right to initiate bills outside of these area. It also functions to advise President on state and foreign affairs.

The People’s Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat) enjoys more authority and prestige compared to the Senate. The Council has three main functions: legislative, budgeting and oversight. It promulgates and passes laws of its own as well discussing and approving government regulations in lieu of law and bills from the Senate related to regional issues. Together with the Government, it produces the annual budget, taking into consideration the views of the Senate. It also has the right to question the President, Prime Minister and other government officials.

Merdeka Palace, the official residence of President of Indonesia.

The executive branch of Indonesia is consisted of the President, the Vice President and a cabinet. The President of Indonesia (Presiden) is the country’s head of state and head of government as well as the commander-in-chief of the Republic of Indonesia Defense Forces (Angkatan Pertahanan Republik Indonesia, APRI). The president is directly elected and may serve up to two five-year terms. Served alongside them is the Vice President of Indonesia (Wakil Presiden), who is elected in pair with the President. The Vice President of Indonesia is the ex officio Speaker of the Senate.

The governmental system in Indonesia can be described "parliamentary republic with presidential characteristics". The President appoints members of cabinet, consisted of ministers and heads of governmental bodies, who may serve at the pleasure of the president. The Prime Minister (Perdana Menteri) is appointed by the president to coordinate the cabinet policies. However, because of the multi-party system of Indonesia, no single party has had a majority in parliament and supports from majority of parties in the legislature, especially the lower chamber, are needed to form a cabinet or to ratify the appointment of a Prime Minister.

The seat of Supreme Court of Indonesia at Medan Merdeka Utara Avenue, Jakarta.

Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court of Indonesia (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; the State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Usaha Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government; and the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Islamic Law (sharia) cases.

History

Netherlands East Indies (1800–1950)

Territorial consolidation (1800–1910)

The nutmeg plant was once one of the world's most valuable commodities and drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.

The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves and cubeb pepper in the Moluccas. Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.

From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late sixteenth century, to the independence of Indonesia in 1950, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish a Dutch hegemony. It was not until the early 20th century, that Dutch dominance was extended across to the future territory of modern-day Indonesia.

From about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands. Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1821 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining independent local rulers. The Bird's Head Peninsula (Western New Guinea), was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of Indonesia.

Ethical policy (1901–18)

Dutch imperial imagery representing the Dutch East Indies, 1916

In 1901, the Dutch government adopted the "Three Policies" of Irrigation, Transmigration, and Education. Queen Wilhelmina announced that the Netherlands acknowledged its ethical duty for the wellbeing of colonial subjects. The Dutch placed a great focus on improving the infrastructure of ports and roads in the Indies, with the purpose of modernizing the economy, easing commerce, and speeding up military movements. However, the education policy introduced Western political notions of freedom and democracy, and a small group of native intellectuals began to articulate a growing anti-colonialism and sense of national identity.

In October 1908, the first native emancipation movement, Boedi Oetomo (Javanese: "Primary Endeavor"), was founded by Soetomo, a government doctor who felt that native intellectuals should improve education and culture among the public. The membership, however, was limited to the upper class Javanese, confined very largely in Java. In 1912, the Islamic Union (Malay: Sarekat Islam, SI) was founded by Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto to empower native merchants in competition with the Chinese business community. In comparison, the SI was more egalitarian in nature and expanded outside Java which it had reached the membership of 37 millions.

Soewardi Soerjaningrat, Douwes Dekker, and Tjipto Mangunkusumo, 1914.

Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Soewardi Soerjaningrat who were disillusioned with the BO, joined the Indies Party (Dutch: Indische Partij, IP) that led by Indo Ernest Douwes Dekker. Inspired by the leading role of the Ilustrados, the educated Pilipino Mestizos, had played in the nationalist movement of the Philippines, the IP envisioned a similar uniting role for the Indo-Europeans in the Indies. The IP was banned in 1913 after a subversive pamphlet by Soewardi and the triumvirate were exiled. The growth of international socialism, on other hand, had resulted to the founding of Indies Social Democratic Association (Dutch: Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging, ISDV) by Henk Sneevliet in 1914 at Semarang. Semaun, who had understudying with Tjokroaminoto, joined the radical ISDV in 1915 and established a Marxist bloc within the SI.

In 1919, the Marxist wing of SI that involved in anti-colonial activites was cracked down, resulting the number of SI members dropped drastically. In 1920, the ISDV became the Communist Union in the Indies (Malay: Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia, PKH) with Semaun as its chairman. The PKH was the first Asian communist party to become part of the Communist International. In the aftermath of 1919 crackdown, the SI faced a factional split between the Marxist-oriented Merah ("red") and anti-Communist Putih ("white") factions. Agus Salim, a Putih leader from West Sumatra, successfully pushed for a ban for SI members from dual membership in other parties, which expelled the SR members from the SI in 1921.

Opening of the Volksraad in Batavia, May 18, 1918.

The colony steadily grew as a separate state from the Netherlands in the 20th century, with a separate treasury established in 1903, public loans contracted by the colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic links established with Hejaz to oversee the Hajj pilgrimage from the East Indies. In 1922, the colony gained equal status with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. A proto-parliament, the Volksraad (Indonesian: Dewan Rakjat; People's Council), was created in 1916 and convened in 1918. It was, however, limited to a consultative role, with just a small percentage of the indigenous people having the ability to elect its members.

Interbellum era (1918–41)

Sukarno (1901–1975), the founding father of Indonesia.

Soewardi returned to Java in 1919 and quit politics to dedicate himself in education activism. With new name Ki Hajar Dewantara, he founded the Taman Siswa ("Students' Garden") in Yogyakarta in 1922 that providing public education for the Indonesians. After released in 1922, Dekker followed Dewantara's steps and founded the Ksatrian Institute in Bandung. Tjipto, however, would remained active politically until his arrest in 1927. Sukarno, a young Javanese engineer who had studying with Tjokroaminoto in Surabaya, was then became a disciple both to Dekker and Tjipto in Bandung during this period.

In 1924, the PKH changed its name into the Communist Party of Indonesia (Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI). As SI decided to focus on religious matters, leaving the PKI as the only active native political organization. In 1926, the PKI attempted a revolution throughout Indonesia through isolated insurrections in Java and Sumatra that panicked the Dutch, who arrested and exiled thousands of communists, effectively neutralizing the PKI for the remainder of the Dutch rule. However, another secular nationalist force soon emerged with the absence of PKI.

Maturing under Tjipto and Dekker's mentorships, Sukarno developed his own political ideology, a Pan-Indonesian identity beyond ethnicity, religion or social class. Sukarno's concept signified a new notion of Indonesian nationalism. In the Netherlands, another young Minangkabau student, Mohammad Hatta, became the leader of Indonesian Association (Perhimpoenan Indonesia, PI) in Rotterdam in 1926. Under Hatta, the PI became a genuine nationalist movement at overseas and participated in several anti-colonial congress all over Europe. In 1927, the Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia, PNI) was established in Bandung with Sukarno as its leader.

Mohammad Hatta (1902–1980), the founding father of Indonesia.

Both Sukarno and Hatta emerged as leaders of a new generation of Indonesian nationalists. The PI's growth alarmed the Dutch authorities. Hatta and other PI leaders were arrested in 1927. During his trial, Hatta made a nationalist speech, titled Indonesia Vrij (Free Indonesia). Similarly, the rapid growth of PNI and its popular support in Western and Central Java alerted the colonial government. Sukarno and other PNI leaders were arrested in 1929. During his trials, Sukarno delivered a series of defense speeches, titled Indonesia Menggoegat (Indonesia Accuses), that gained extensive coverage by the press. By this time, both had become popular heroes widely known throughout Indonesia.

However, during Sukarno's imprisonment, the PNI had been dissolved and split off into two groups. The Indonesia Party (Partai Indonesia, Partindo), led by Sukarno's associate Sartono, was promoting mass agitation similar to the PNI's old tactics. Sukarno would took over its leadership after he released in 1931. On other hand, Hatta's associate Sutan Sjahrir, who recently returned from studies in the Netherlands, organized the Indonesian Nationalist Education (Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia, PNI Baru) in 1932. Similarly, Hatta assumed the PNI Baru's leadership after he released in 1932. Unlike Sukarno, Hatta wanted to promote the development of native intellectual class by providing modern education to the uneducated Indonesians.

M.H. Thamrin, Emile Gobée and Koesoemo Oetojo (centre, 1st row) and other elected native members of Volksraad, 1937.

In 1933, Sukarno was arrested again on the charge of subservient activities, while Hatta and Sjahrir were arrested in 1934 with similar charges and they were sent to internal exiles. To avoid similar fate, others chose to cooperate with the Dutch. The Greater Indonesian Party (Partai Indonesia Raja, Parindra) was established in 1935 by Soetomo. One of its leaders and a prominent Betawi politician, Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin, was the leading nationalist at that time in the place of exiled Sukarno. Thamrin actively pushed for nationalist agenda in the Volksraad, such the use of Indonesian language in the legal documents

In July 1936, Soetardjo Kartohadikoesoemo, a Volksraad member, submitted a petition called for an imperial conference to arrange Indonesian autonomy within the Kingdom of the Netherlands over a ten-year period. However, the proposal was rejected in November 1938. As a respond, the nationalist parties, including the Parindra, formed the Indonesian Political Federation (Gaboengan Politiek Indonesia, GAPI) with Thamrin as its main leader on May 21, 1939. In December, the GAPI convened the First Indonesian People’s Congress to campaign for autonomy status albeit the strong antipathy from the government of the Netherlands.

The First Indonesian People Congress convened by the GAPI, 1939

The invasion of Poland by Germany in September 1939 signaled the start of World War II in Europe. East Asia itself was succumbed under a then-separate conflict between Japan and China. Germany invaded the Netherlands in May 1940 and the government-in-exile was established in London. After the invasion, the martial law was implemented in the Indies. All public meetings were banned and several political figures, such as Thamrin, Soetardjo, Sam Ratulangi and Ernest Douwes Dekker, were arrested in January 1941. Thamrin, already ill of malaria, died after five days in custody, while Dekker was sent to a labor prison in Solomon Islands.

By 1940, the Dutch government-in-exile was still in control of the East Indies, the third largest oil producer at the time. Under this condition, Tokyo pressured Batavia in late 1940 for an exclusive access to oil supply on the islands which rejected by the Dutch. When China occupied Indochina in February 1941, Japan invaded the East Indies from the Philippines in March 1941. Within three months, the Dutch forces were quickly overwhelmed and finally capitulated to Japan in June 1941. The Japanese Tamiikusa Army occupied Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi and the Moluccas, where key fields located and left the rest of islands to the Dutch under the status quo.

World War II (1941–45)

Bombs from a Japanese aircraft falling near the Dutch light cruiser Java in the Gaspar Strait east of Sumatra, 1941

The capitulation showed how powerless the Dutch were. In July 1941, new leader of Faction Nationaal in the Volksraad, Koesoemo Oetojo, delivered a speech criticizing the colonial defense efforts. He was then expelled from the Volksraad for this speech. As a sign of solidarity, all native members resigned en masse, resulting the Volksraad was not convened until 1943. Situation was quickly changed when Japan decided to join the Allies and merged the conflicts in Asia with the European ones. The Dutch reluctantly had to accept Japan as the "superior" partner, establishing de facto Japanese control over the East Indies.

The martial law was lifted on March 3, 1942, a day after Japan declared war on Germany, Spain and Italy. On the territories directly occupied by the Japanese, small-scale social revolutions occurred. Many natives had witnessed directly before them that their once-powerful European masters have surrendered to fellow Asians. Nationalistic as well as class struggle sentiments were manifested by several revolts and attacks against local aristocrats and Dutch officials in northern Sumatra and southern Borneo. To appease this outburst of anti-Dutch and anti-elite attacks, Japanese military administrations appointed many Indonesians to the positions of advisors, heads of departments and local administrations, much to dismay of colonial government in Batavia.

The ban on nationalist symbols was also lifted and the exiled activists, such Soekarno, Hatta, Sjahrir, and Tjipto, were pardoned after the pressures from the Japanese. With the release of its leaders, the PNI was re-established on June 1, 1942. Sukarno and Hatta were elected as the PNI's joint Supreme Leaders (Pemimpin Besar). The party attracted ideological supporters both from left and right. Amir Sjarifuddin brought the communists and leftists into the PNI's rank. On other hand, Sudjono, a Javanese expatriate in Japan who had brought home by the Japanese, also joined and provided the PNI financial and technical supports from the Pan-Asian Association in Tokyo.

Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta (1-2R) aboard a Japanese warship, 1943.

To avoid the Dutch intelligence, the PNI leaders moved to the Japanese-occupied Borneo and Sumatra. Sukarno and several others stayed at Banjarmasin, while Hatta and the rest went to Padang. The PNI convened the Second Indonesian People's Congress in Padang on September 30, 1942, demanding complete Indonesian independence following the principles laid in the 1941 Atlantic Charter. When the Dutch government simply ignored the resolution, the PNI leaders launched the Merdeka Movement on November 10, 1942.

Inspired by the Quit India Movement months earlier, Sukarno called for massive civil disobedience against the colonial government. In Java and Sulawesi, large protests and demonstrations were held all over and labor strikes were organized. Unlike in India, the Merdeka Movement was hard to be suppressed since its leaders stayed under Japanese protection and provided by the Soviet and Japanese aids. Although mass detentions occurred in Java, the colonial government was unable to arrest its key leaders. The success of Merdeka Movement was ensured when moderate nationalists, such as Oetojo and Ratulangi, joined in 1943 and demanded the Dutch to negotiate with the PNI leaders.

Governor-General Van Mook delivered a speech before the attendants of Conference of Rulers

With the rising nationalist movement, Governor-General Hubertus J. van Mook softened his stance and the Volksraad was re-convened on August 1, 1943. Sam Ratulangi pushed for the creation of Indonesische Weerbaar (Dutch: "Indonesian Militia") as demanded by the Tamiikusa to enlist the Indonesians in the Allied war effort. Oetojo, on other hand, demanded a post-war imperial reorganization that will grant the Indonesians rights of self-determination (zelfbeschikking) and self-government (zelfbestuur).

Represented a reformist wing within the colonial government, Van Mook accepted Ratulangi's proposal, but contemplated on Oetojo's own. Formed in February 1944, the Indonesische Weerbaar, participated in the battles with the Tamiikusa and the South Seas Legion in southern China and Indochina. The local rulers (radja) soon followed the call for self-government echoed within the Volksraad. The Conference of Insular Rulers (Dutch: Conferentie van Insulaire Vorsten) was convened in Bandung on December 2, 1944. Attended by the local rulers, such as Sjarif Kasim II of Siak, Andi Mappanyuki of Bone and Iskandar of Ternate, it repeated the Oetojo's proposal for self-government right.

Post-war reforms (1945–47)

Sutan Sjahrir, Amir Sjarifuddin and Hubertus J. van Mook on their first meeting in Batavia, 1945.

The wartime experience of native rule in the Japanese-occupied territories made a return to pre-war colonial status for the Indies unrealistic and unpopular, even to non-PNI politicians. After the Netherlands was liberated on May 5, 1945, the post-war Dutch government was dominated by the Social Democrats and the Communists which desired to relieve the financial burden of the empire, hence starting decolonization process. Van Mook and a delegation of Volksraad, consisted of Koesoemo Oetojo, Sam Ratulangi, Soetardjo Kartohadikoesoemo, Oto Iskandar Dinata, Ignatius J. Kasimo, and Johannes Latuharhary, agreed with the Dutch cabinet that Indonesia would be granted independence gradually, starting from 1948.

With the Japanese withdrawal in August 1945, the PNI decided to tone down its wartime agitation. Hatta, Sjahrir and Amir were the leading advocates to work with Van Mook's plan. Appointed personally by Sukarno, Sjahrir and Amir met Van Mook for the first time in Batavia on November 24, 1945. Sjahrir wanted Van Mook to ensure the PNI's political activities in exchange for the support needed to Van Mook's self-government plan. As he wanted for an orderly and gradual political evolution to achieve his plan, Van Mook was more than pleased with the offer. The PNI quickly emerged as the strongest political party after the 1946 local elections.

Voters in Madura cast their ballots during the 1946 local elections.

Van Mook later reorganized the colony's administrative divisions and allowed free elections of local councils in preparation for self-government. By 1946, the colony was divided into three Gouvernementen (Sumatra, Borneo and the Great East), three Provincies (West, Central and East Java) and four Vorstenlanden (Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman). Sumatra has ten states, while Borneo was divided into six. Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman would join Surakarta and Yogyakarta, respectively, rather than becoming independent. In 1947, the Great East was divided into seven states and Madura would split from East Java.

On March 12, 1947, the Constituent Assembly (Constituante) was inaugurated; about more than half of its composition were from the PNI. Sukarno and several PNI leaders were elected to the Federal Council. By purpose, the Federal Council (Dutch: Federaal Raad) acted as a transitional cabinet. By all intents, Sukarno was Prime Minister as the Council's Deputy President, albeit he was still subject to the veto of the Council's president, Governor-General Van Mook. On August 17, 1947, the Federation of Indonesia (Indonesian: Federasi Indonesia; Dutch: Federatie van Indonesië) was established within the Netherlands-Indonesian Union.

Self-government (1947–50)

The opening session of the Constituent Assembly in Batavia on March 12, 1947.

Papua remained a separate polity within the federation because the local chiefs and Dutch settlers were hesitant to join. The pro-federation Free Indonesian Party (Partai Indonesia Merdeka) only gained one seat (Frans Kaisiepo) in the New Guinea Council. In Minahasa, the Twapro Party (Dutch: Twaalfde Provincie, "Twelfth Province") wanted the region to join the Netherlands, instead of the federation. It was defeated by a nationalist coalition led by Sam Ratulangi in 1946, but was elected to the Minahasa Council in third place, demonstrating its political potential against the nationalists.

Demobilization effort for the members of Weerbaar led to a rebellion by the dissatisfied officers in West and Central Java in June 1948, called the "Weerbaar Affair". A part of the Weerbaar was already radicalized by the ideology of Tan Malaka and more militant left-wing nationalists, leading to an open revolt by the Weerbaar soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant Supriyadi. During the uprising, Van Mook suspected the PNI of backing the rebels. Although the PNI did not publicly back the Affair, Sukarno and Amir were in direct contact with the rebel leaders. The governor-general then ordered the arrest of several major PNI leaders for sedition. The arrests angered the public, who urged the release of political detainees.

Sukarno addressed the masses at the Koningsplein, Batavia, after his release from the prison, December 12, 1948.

Agus Salim of the Islamic Union Party took the floor of the Constituent Assembly to criticize the move, arguing it will only radicalize the people. Similar critics were also voiced by the social democratic and communist parliamentarians in the Netherlands. Prime Minister Willem Drees also addressed the issue before the Dutch House of Representatives on November 11, 1948, calling for the return of a democratic order toward Indonesian independence. The PNI leaders were bailed out on December 12, 1948. Shortly after released, Sukarno spoke before the masses gathered at the Koningsplein, Batavia, to calm the uprisings, effectively ending the civil unrest.

Several issues were debated in the Assembly between 1947 and 1950, including the national ideology of Indonesia whether based on secularist principles or on Islam and forms of state and government. As a compromise with the Islamic parties, the secular nationalist group within the Assembly eventually agreed upon to include the obligation for the Muslims to abide by the religious law on the Batavia Charter (Indonesian: Piagam Betawi; Dutch: Handvest van Batavia), which in turn forms as the basis of constitution. The Constitution of Indonesia was finished on May 25, 1950, modelled on the constitutions of the Netherlands, the United States, Japan and even the Soviet Union.

The Imperial Conference in session at the Ridderzaal, The Hague

On December 27, 1949, the Imperial Conference was held in the Hague, attended by the representatives of Dutch and Indonesian governments. The Netherlands-Indonesia Union (Nederlands-Indonesische Unie) was founded as a confederal union (confederatief verband) between two nations with Queen Juliana as its head. In the union, both countries are equal and sovereign partners (gelijkwaardige en soevereine partners). It has a permanent secretariat, a court of arbitration to settle any legal disputes, and a minimum of two ministerial conferences, presided whether by the prime ministers of the Netherlands or of Indonesia, every year. It was also agreed for an alliance on economic and military affairs between the two nations.

As the national constitution establishes a bicameral parliament (Madjelis Permoesjawaratan Rakjat) and a republican form of government, the elections for the members of Senate and an electoral college to elect President and Vice President (Indonesian: Badan Pemilihan; Dutch: Kiescollege) were commenced in June 1950. On August 18, 1950, Sukarno was elected President with 91.26% of votes, while Hatta received 81.82% of electoral votes for vice-presidential position, defeating other candidates including Ki Hadjar Dewantara and Abikusno Tjokrosujono.

Republic of Indonesia (1950–present)

Early Sukarno era (1950–1958)

Sukarno declared the independence of Indonesia at a ceremony held in the Gambir Palace (later renamed the Merdeka Palace), on August 22, 1950.

On August 22, 1950, Sukarno, as the President-designate, declared the independence of Indonesia in a ceremony held in the Gambir Palace (Paleis te Koningsplein), Batavia, now has been called Jakarta. Vice President Hatta, the ex officio Speaker of Senate, was appointed by President as an informateur to create a government as well as the interim head of government before it can be formed. Sutan Sjahrir was eventually chosen to lead the government and was sworn as Prime Minister on September 1, 1950.

On September 28, 1950, Indonesia was accepted as the 50th member of the United Nations. Amidst the Cold War tensions, Indonesia adopted a non-aligned foreign policy to either the Soviets or the Americans. Sjahrir enjoyed a personal relationship with his Indian counterpart, Jawaharlal Nehru, who espoused similar domestic and foreign political viewpoints. To maintain this independent international posture, the Republic of Indonesia Defense Forces (Angkatan Pertahanan Repoeblik Indonesia, APRI) was inaugurated on December 1, 1950 with Abdul Haris Nasution as its chief of staff.

Sutan Sjahrir (1909–1986), the first Prime Minister of Indonesia (1950–1954) and third Secretary General of the United Nations (1961–1971).

In 1952, the eighth Indonesian Cultural Congress (Kongres Kebudayaan Indonesia) was held. Attended also by the delegates from Malaya, North Borneo and Moroland, it notably adopted a unified orthography for Malay-Indonesian languages, called Ejaan Kongres ("Congress Orthography"). The PNI won 40.1% of votes on the 1953 general election and gained 85 seats in the House of Representatives. Sukarno and Hatta were also re-elected for their second term in the 1955 presidential election.

Sukarno and Sjahrir had a strife with each other during this period. Sjahrir opposed Sukarno's interference on cabinet affairs, believing the office of President should be above politics. Sjahrir was not reappointed in the aftermath of 1953 election as he did not gaining supports from his own party and Sukarno instead appointed Ali Sastroamidjojo, to form new cabinet. Sjahrir was practically exiled abroad, assigned first as the head of the NIU's secretariat at The Hague and later as the permanent representative to the United Nations in 1957. Ali's cabinet was formed on April 2, 1954, which was joined by the Nahdlatul Ulama and Parindra. It adopted a nationalist economic policy which imposed tight regulation on industry and tariff on imports.

Plenary session during the Bandung Conference, 1955.

In April 1955, the Bandung Conference was held to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and opposition to colonialism and imperialism all around the globe and it represented a triumph for Indonesian foreign policy. Those present including Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Subhas Chandra Bose, Pakistan's Liaquat Ali Khan, Vietnam's Duy Tân and Japan's Asanuma Inejirō. In May 1956, Sukarno was invited to visit the United States in which he addressed the joint session of U.S. Congress and visited Disneyland. It was followed by a trip to the Soviet Union in August and September 1956 in which Sukarno gave a speech to the crowd of 75,000 at a mass reception in Tashkent's Pakhtakor Central Stadium.

Middle Sukarno era (1958–1967)

Rubber was one of the main export commodities of Indonesia to the international markets during the 1950s.

After the independence in 1950, the Indonesian government depended on taxation from foreign trade as a main source of revenues. However, by the late 1950s, prices of rubber, copra, and other export commodities declined, while government expenditures kept increasing, which resulting to growing budget deficit. Sukarno visited Tokyo in February 1958 and secured low-interest loans of US$150 million from the Japanese government. The loans were later used to fund public work projects to build bridges, irrigation systems, reservoirs, port facilities, hotels, and factories across the country.

In April 1958, former Finance Minister Iskaq Tjokrohadisurjo was prosecuted for obtaining personal financial benefits when in office and convicted of nine months in prison, fined, and had some of his assets seized. President Sukarno eventually pardoned Iskaq, whom he had co-founded the PNI with. While the party had kept its lead in the 1957 general election, the graft scandal soon tarnished the PNI's reputation, costing it confidence from the voters. MIAI formed state governments in East Sumatra, West Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, West Java and South Sulawesi in aftermath of the 1958 local elections and won the largest number of seats in the Senate in 1959.

Amir Sjarifuddin (1907–1961), the third Prime Minister of Indonesia (1958–1961).

Amir Sjarifuddin replaced Ali as prime minister on May 12, 1958, whose cabinet was joined by the Indonesian Muslim League (LMI), Labour Party, Parkin, and Murba. While Amir's cabinet continued on talks with the Netherlands in regard of the status of the Western New Guinea, at this point, the state of union between the Netherlands and Indonesia has became very fragile as Sukarno and Amir kept pushing into more confrontational approach with the Dutch. It was only through the joint efforts by the right-wing PNI and MIAI parliamentarians that put the union out of risk by rejecting Amir's proposed defense budget in 1959.

To bypass this rejection, Amir, who espoused pro-Moscow outlook, secured a $2.5 billion deal with Moscow consisted of new heavy transport helicopters, transport aircraft, combat aircraft, submarines, combat ships, and anti-ship missiles to increase the country's military posture. Moscow also gave a special loan to the Indonesian government to construct the Senayan Main Stadium in 1960 to host the 1962 Asian Games. This degree of cooperation cut short when Amir died of a sudden heart attack in 1961; Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Tjokroaminoto filled in to lead the cabinet.

Wilopo (1909–1981), the fifth Prime Minister of Indonesia (1962–1970).

In 1962, new cabinet was formed by Hatta as its informateur which supported by the PNI, MIAI, Parindra and Parkin; Wilopo was chosen as new prime minister. While kept non-aligned, Wilopo normalized the country's relations with the West and Japan. The government also tried to improve economic condition by liberalizing trade and actively seeking foreign investment. In 1964, Japan agreed to invest for the construction of standard-gauge railway lines in Sumatra running from Dumai to Bakauheni as a part of the ambitious Greater East Asia Railroad project, to connect trade between Indonesia and continental Asia through Malaya's Malacca City.

In 1964, Sukarno announced his proposed constitutional amendment to lengthen his presidential term from 5 to 7 years. A new election bill was also set to have presidential nomination set by the MPR which is to be confirmed by a popular referendum rather than through a competitive election, believing it fits the most with the nature of Indonesia. It was opposed by the MIAI and Parkin that resigned its ministers from the cabinet. Nevertheless, the motion was supported by the parliamentary majority. The 1965 referendum accepted the amendment and confirmed Sukarno's fourth term.

Later Sukarno era (1967–1975)

President Sukarno arrived at Dumai from southern Sumatra by train to open the Dumai-Bakauheni line, 1969.

Tracklaying for the Dumai-Bakauheni line began in 1967 by Japanese government-owned Nanyo Construction Company and was completed in 1969, formally opened by President Sukarno. It served for propaganda purpose as a success of government-sponsored development projects. However, Indonesia Raya and Suara Rakyat, the newspapers critical to the government, reported embezzlements of the railroad construction fund by the PNI politicians both at national and local levels. The newspapers' licenses were revoked temporarily by Sukarno's direct order for potentially harming the PNI's electoral performance during the year's general election.

After years of long negotiations and mediations, the governments of Indonesia and the Netherlands and all parties involved in the newly-formed West New Guinea government, led by Prime Minister Nicolaas Jouwe, signed the West New Guinea Agreement on August 16, 1969 affirming New Guinea to join Indonesia. New Guinea was to be referred as "Irian", with a higher degree of local government and legislative autonomy than other states of Indonesia. The rights of Dutch nationals in New Guinea as well as their assets are to be protected. Jouwe continued as the head of government of Irian under the Indonesian rule until his resignation in 1978.

Protesters burned a car during the March 1973 riots in Jakarta.

The visit of Etsusaburo Shiina, the Japanese economic minister, on March 27, 1973 triggered a demonstration by a number of local anti-Japanese sentiments denying international investment. Food crisis in the early 1970s and perceived corruption cases by government officials on Japan's Greater East Asia Railroad project only strengthened disillusionment with the government. Opposition parties, like the MIAI and the Murba, criticized close associates of President Sukarno, including Sudjono, Hasjim Ning and Jusuf Muda Dalam, had used their relationships with the Japanese investors to enrich themselves.

In Jakarta, hundreds of cars were burned, mainly of Japanese make, and stores selling Japanese products were looted during Shiina's state visit. Riots and protests spread to Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Padang, Medan and Banjarmasin, forcing Sukarno to declare martial law (staat van oorlog en beleg) on March 30, 1973. President Sukarno granted the APRI the powers to enforce actions deemed necessary to maintain law and order. Abdul Haris Nasution, the APRI chief, as well as the armed forces in general rose to prominence during the martial law era, second only to Sukarno. Governments in seven states were suspended and their authorities were assumed by local military commanders. Parties and organizations supported the protests, such as the MIAI and Murba, were banned at regional level.

Funeral procession of Sukarno on May 29, 1975, attended by hundreds of thousands of mourners.

Sukarno's fifth term had been confirmed by the voters in the 1972 referendum. However, his health had already steadily declined after 1970 due to kidney-related issues. There was a rumor that Sukarno would not survive his term, therefore his vice-presidential selection became very important. After deliberations with political parties and the armed forces, Sanusi Hardjadinata, the former governor of West Java who belongs to the PNI moderate wing, was personally handpicked by Sukarno as his Vice President, replacing Wilopo. On May 29, 1975, Sukarno died in office of kidney failure, at the age of 74. Sanusi was sworn as new President of Indonesia on June 1, 1975.

Tripanji era (1975–1986)

Sanusi Hardjadinata (1914–1995), the second President of Indonesia (1975–1986)

In his inaugural address before the MPR joint session, Sanusi promised to revoke martial law imposed since 1973 and restore civil liberties. He also promised for an economic reorganization which more emphasize on the private sectors, away from state monopoly and toward the growth of indigenous middle class. Sanusi's decision was influenced by the increasing influence of foreign-educated Indonesian intellectuals who became a new technocratic elite in the government. This political statement was known as Tripanji Kerakyatan ("Three Democratic Banners").

By the early 1970s, food crisis loomed over the country. On June 5, 1975, the People's Food Supply Board (Badan Persediaan Makanan Rakyat, BPMR) was formed to address food security issue and stop rice imports from Vietnam and China which had dropped the price of rice at market much to the farmers' protest. In 1976, Indonesia signed contracts with foreign chemical firms, such as Mitsubishi (Japan) and Hshishan (China), and with the governments of the USSR and East Germany, to provide fertilizer and pesticides. In 1977, the government adopted high yielding Koshihikari rice variety from Japan. The BPMR also supplied villages with raw materials free of charge to build irrigation systems and roads. The army personnel, known as the Village Guidance Officers (Bintara Pembina Desa, "Babinsa"), were mobilized and specially assigned to help developments in rural areas.

Rice is the staple food for majority of the Indonesians and it holds the central place in Indonesian culture and Indonesian cuisine.

Price control was also imposed by the BPMR to stabilize market prices on rice by operating a buffer stock on the order of 2 million tons during the 1980s. When domestic prices fell, the BPMR purchased rice through village cooperatives, and when prices rose above the price ceiling, it released buffer supplies. From 1970 to 1980, annual rice production had increased from 12 million to around 29 million tons. The success of agricultural policies gained Sanusi a recognition as the "Father of Rural Development" (Bapak Pembangunan Desa) by the MPR in 1980.

At that time, television broadcasting was monopolized by government-owned Radio Televisi Republik Indonesia with two channels: RTRI-1 (1962) and RTRI-2 (1972) for education programs. In 1980, the government gradually phased out the monopoly as the third public channel, RTRI-3, was launched, specialized for entertainment programs and was allowed to air commercials which were banned in the other two. Televisi Nusantara ("TVN"), the television station owned by PNI politician Jusuf Muda Dalam's Nusantara Group, was granted broadcasting license in 1981, making it the first commercial network in Indonesia. It was followed by Samudera Indonesia TV ("SITV"), owned by Soedarpo Sastrosatomo's Soedarpo Group, in 1982, and Celebes Central TV ("CCTV"), owned by Jusuf Kalla's Hadji Kalla Group in 1985.

Situation at an Indonesian classroom, ca. 1982. Dutch is used as a medium of instruction in several states of Indonesia, especially at the Great East.

Demonstrations broke out in Manado, Ambon and Kupang in July 1982 when the government put forward a bill proposing Indonesian should be the sole medium of instruction. While the constitution has recognized Indonesian as sole national language, the states are also entitled rights to determine their own educational system based on a curriculum decided by the central government, including the use of Dutch alongside of Indonesian as mediums of instruction and as an optional teaching subject in the Great East. The proposed law was seen by the easterners as an attempt by Jakarta to strengthen its hegemony over the eastern states. When riots broke out in Ambon on August 1, martial law was imposed on the Moluccas and direct presidential rule was implemented until 1983 when the bill was defeated in the upper house.

Further readings