Marc of Wales (Welsh History Post Glyndwr)

Marc
7th King of Wales
King of Wales
House of Fitzgerald-Glyndwr
Reign	4th November 1598 - 13th January 1600
Coronation	8th November 1598 St David’s Cathedral
Predecessor	Elen
Successor	Dafydd IV
Born	15th August 1556 Harlech Castle
Died	13th January 1600 (Aged: 44) Caernarfon Town
Burial	Tintern Abbey
Spouse	Mary Hapsburg, Princess of Spain
Issue	Gruffudd ap Marc ap Elen, Edling Cymru
Full name
Marc ap Elen ferch Rhodri
Posthumous name
Marc Gwrthgiliwr (the Apostate)
House	House of Fitzgerald-Glyndwr
Father	Edward Fitzgerald
Mother	Elen ferch Rhodri ap Hywel
Religion	Calvinism

Marc acceded to the throne at the already old age of 42. An experienced Edling, he had ruled the Principality of Gwynedd on behalf of his mother, he had married and he had an heir, Gruffudd. He was also a Calvinist in a still staunchly Roman Catholic Wales and the frictions that that engendered would rapidly plunge the kingdom into civil war.

Marc, Tywysog Gwynedd & Edling Gymraeg

As the eldest son of Edward and Elen, Marc was groomed early for his position as Edling. The best tutors, weapons training, rhetoric, the young Prince wanted for nothing. The library in Caernarfon was rapidly built up as the Prince showed a voracious appetite for books, both in Latin, Welsh and French. His early childhood was balanced by the standards of the time. Living with his mother in the court at Caernarfon he was introduced early to courtly intrigue. On his 21st birthday his mother, Queen Elen, created him Tywysog Gwynedd, granting him power over the north of Wales, he also married Mary of the House of Hapsburg in the September of that year, marking the beginnings of greater involvement with the Spanish policy in Europe. As Tywysog Gwynedd, Marc took over Harlech as his seat, though his wife, having read up on her prospective Welsh husband patronaged the rebuilding of the Palas Garth Celyn as her home as Tywysoges Gwynedd. This palas would later become the seat of the Tywysogion Gwynedd after the Welsh Restoration, with the Marian Chapel of Tywysoges Mary and the rebuilt Tower of Llywelyn features from this period.

Although Marc was only four when Tywysog Morgan led the Protestant Uprising of 1559, the Tywysog Powys was to have a lasting influence on the young Edling. Morgan, by the Senedd of 1560 had to renounce Lutheranism to protect his throne, but he never lost his protestant leanings. With the young Edling being raised to the Tywysogaeth Gywnedd on the 15th August 1577 he entered Morgan's orbit. The elder statesman began his grooming of the heir almost immediately. Long years are spent working on the Edling and Tywysog Gwynedd, but the fruits are visible. As the 1580's draw on Morgan is more open in his Lutheran ideals again in Powys and in Gwynedd Lutheran and Calvinist preachers are made welcome (though the Calvinists would not appear in court until the late 1590's). Long arguments are held in the Llys Brenhinol (Royal Court) between the fiercely Catholic Tywysog Cydweddog and Queen and the increasingly hot headed Edling. Marc chaffs under the scrutiny of his father and it is not until the later's death in 1589 that open Protestantism begins again to surface in Wales.

Both Powys and Gwynedd are open to Protestants with Morgan the more welcoming of the two. The Tywysoges Gwynedd, Mary, remains also a staunchly loyal Catholic so Protestant infiltration is limited to the far eastern fringes of the principality.

Conversion of the Edling

With the 1590's dawning, the Tywysog Powys, in view of the waning power of the Queen again allows an openly Lutheran court to reside in Trefaldwyn (Montgomery). In Harlech the Edling is less open, allowing those who practice Protestantism to do so in peace, but not advocating it yet. That would change in 1596 with the arrival in Harlech of the Calvinist preacher, Heinrich of Swabia. Under his influence, the already half convinced protestant Prince would become a fully fledged convert, being re-baptised into his new fath in 1598. It was this act almost more than any other which causes the old Queen to lose the will to live, dying in the November of 1598.

Marc, Brenin Gymraeg

Map showing the territories of Wales

Marc moved swiftly. His mothers death within his own Principality allowing him a degree of freedom he might otherwise have lacked. Traveling without his queen, but with a small retinue of loyal soldiers and Heinrich of Swabia, Marc rides to St David's. There without the consent of the Archbishop he has himself crowned by Heinrich within the Cathedral cloisters. With only Powys as his ally, Marc realises the importance of striking quickly to keep the conservative nobility on the defensive.

Resistance, however, arises in the form of the king's brother, the Dug Deheubarth. In the February of 1599 as both camps circle each other nervously, Rhys, Dug Deheubarth and brother to the king, calls together a Senedd in Machynlleth to discuss both the new kings religions beliefs but also the coronation. Outraged at this break in protocol, and urged by Morgan, Marc leads a contingent of soldiers to the Senedd, forcibly ending the session. The Royal brothers having a public argument, ending only when Rhys walks away, unable as yet, even in anger to raise a hand to his brother the king.

Spring and early summer are nervous months. Both camps are unsure of the others move. No one denies that Marc is the king, nor that he has the right to the throne, but his newly Calvinist leanings alienate most of the nobility and all of the clergy. A rival camp grows centered on the still Catholic, Tywysog Rhys, with Tywysog Morgan hovering in the wings.

Map showing the area controlled by Marc

May and June 1599 see the only Senedd of Marc's reign, where the religious tolerances acts are passed in addition to some regulatory laws for the penal and tax system. Tensions however continue to rise and finally spill into violence in late June, with the Dug Deheubarth the Tywysog Rhys, launching an attack on Machynlleth, defeating his brothers forces and making the King retreat northward to the fortress of Harlech. The breaking of Royal ranks by the Dug opens Wales to civil war based on religious grounds and sees Marc reduce him from the title of Deheubarth to the rump of Dyfed. The Tywysog Powys rallies to the Kings cause while the Catholic southern lords, including the Tywysog Morgannwg rally to the Dug. The most important other noble however remains staunchly neutral, the Dug Y Mers, Henri Grey, refuses at first to be drawn into either camp.

August and September see two armed camps sniping at each other without much in the way of pitched battles. Skirmishes are the order of the day, with both sides scoring victories. This pattern continues into October with the Dug Dyfed leading a column in north east Wales. He is ambushed by Marc in the Battle of Sycharth. During the battle the old Manor House of Owain Glyndwr catches fire and burns to the ground, whilst Dyfed dies during the battle. With the death of the Dug, the Catholic forces appear to be defeated, the Dug Y Mers comes out in support of his king and Marc feels confident to retire to Caernarfon to see out the winter, hopeful that with the spring his remaining enemies in the south can be brought to heel. His son, the Edling has garrisoned both Cydweli and Abertawe Castles (Cydweli against the wishes of the Iarll) and Wales appears to be quiet if not peaceful.

The winter lull however proves to be Marc's undoing. The Dug Dyfed left an heir, the precocious Dafydd, now Dug in his own right. This 12 year old is not seen as a threat, certainly not by Marc, Powys or Y Mers. He is however seen as successor to the Catholic cause by Tywysog Gwillym gan Morgannwg and his heir Meurig and the other Arglwyddi Deheuol (Southern Lords).

Area controlled January 1600

January 1600 opens in a favourable fashion for the King. England is sympathetic to his cause and sends both money and troops to his aid. Marc still controls large parts of Wales, with Gwynedd, Powys, Y Mers, Dehubarth, Cydweli, Gwyr and Henfford firmly under his control. However, Dyfed, aided and advised by Morgannwg and more notably his son, the Lord Meurig, advanced on Caernarfon. Surprising Marc, the Skirmish of Caernarfon carried a heavy price. Marc himself fell, as did the Dug Y Mers and with Marc fell the Protestant Uprising's figurehead, though the Uprising did not fall at the same time.

Gruffud, Edling Gymraeg

With the death of his father in battle on the 13th January, Gruffudd was now de jure king of Wales, though in his month long tenure he was not popularly acclaimed with the title by the nobility. Gruffudd was holding the South (Gwlad y Haf & Dyfnaint Glan Hafren) for his father when he died in Caernarfon and instantly he knew that he was in a race for the throne. With the death of Marc, Tywysog Morgan gan Powys senses a chance to claim the throne, and the young Dug Dyfed also has a claim. Young Gruffudd, only 21, had the best claim as the de jure monarch, but his Protestant upbringing and the death of his father diminished his star. Gruffudd realises that his biggest rival is the Tywysog Powys and he moves to face him. Meeting at Strata Florida, the monks powerless to prevent battle, the young Edling is killed by Powys on the 9th Feb 1600 in the Battle of Strata Florida. With the death of the Edling and the de jure king, Gruffudd, Powys moves to tighten his grip on power. With Gwynedd, Ynys Mon, Powys, Y Mers, Henfford, Gwlad yr Haf, Dyfnaint Glan Hafren, Cydweli and Gwyr under his control and the Iarlls Brycheiniog, Ddeana and Ergyng under his influence it is only the Arglwyddi o Gwent, Morgannwg, Deheubarth and Ty Dewi that are free to resist him. Then in a comedy of errors, Tywysog Morgan falls at the last hurdle. With the country increasingly under his control and with the Arglwyddi o Ty Dewi's on the brink of surrender to him, he is killed by bandits south of Llanfair-ym-Muallt (Builth Wells). With Morgans death the way is open for Dafydd, grandson of Queen Elen to climb over the bodies to claim the throne of Wales and usher in a new dynasty, the House of Deheubarth.

Dowager Princess Mari of Gwynedd

Mary of Spain married Marc on the 17th September 1577 in Bangor Cathedral. Born on the 20th July 1555 in the Imperial City of Regansburg, daughter to the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian II and his Spanish wife Maria Hapsburg. Mary herself was brought up in Spain for part of her childhood and always considered herself to be Spanish. As part of Queen Elen's policy of engagement with European politics, the Welsh ambassador engaged in a marriage contract with the Imperial court looking for a favourable match for the Welsh Crown Prince. Eventually in 1575 it was agreed that the Archduchess Mary would become Marc's bride. After the usual political horse trading, the marriage itself was finally accomplished on the 17th September 1577, the bride having arrived in Wales two months previously. The young Archduchess had some problems adjusting to life in Wales to start off with. Fluent in German, French and Spanish she struggled to learn the Welsh language. Marc for his part could speak French well, but his German was poor and his Spanish non-exisitent and Mary's accent made for difficult conversations. Originally the young couple resided in the Royal Palace of Caernarfon, with Marc traveling between Harlech and Caernarfon. The young princess however was determined to make herself both useful and relevant and so in combination with learning the Welsh tongue she also decided to patronage the re-building of Garth Celyn along the coast from Caernarfon. She was responsible for the rebuilding of the Tower of Llewelyn as well as supervising what would in time become known as the Marian Chapel. The princess moved into the new palace in the spring of 1578 whilst the building work was going on around her, giving birth to Tywysog Gruffud in the November of 1578.

The young princess quickly became popular with the local lords of North Wales. Her husband was prickly and under the spell of the Tywysogf Powys and had therefore never gained the hearts of the Gwyneddian nobility. Mary, or Mari as she became known, had no allies, no friends when she arrived and knew that if she were to survive what was already becoming a loveless marriage would need to cultivate contacts in her social class. The constable of Caernarfon, Lord Rhys Gwillym and his wife quickly became life long confidants of the princess and through them her access to the social circle of North Wales developed at pace.

The Palas Garth Celyn was finished in the summer of 1580 and with it Princess Mari held regular balls but she also started to intrude on the Welsh Llys. Marc held llys himself at Harlech as Tywysog Gwynedd, but the Queen held court mainly in Caernarfon. Both palaces were in easy reach of the princess though as the 1580's progressed and her husbands flirtation with protestantism grew deeper then the pair grew ever more estranged. Princess Mari would find herself defending the Pope and the Catholic faith at a Court increasingly divided as the protestant reformation swept Europe.

With the death of the Prince-Consort Edward (Iorwerth, Tywysog Cydweddog) in 1589 the marriage of Marc and Mari almost completely fell apart. By now the two were religiously polar opposites, with Marc revolutionary in his increasingly Calvinist beliefs whilst Mari's Roman Catholic faith had been strengthened during her married life in Wales, even as first her marriage failed and then as her son was removed from her by his father, she clung to her faith as as rock. During the late 1580's and early 1590's she donated greatly to the religious houses in North Wales as well as contracting works at Bangor Cathedral.

With the reign of Elen in its twilight years Mari found new allies within the Royal Family, Prince Rhys, Dug Deheubarth came of age in 1587 and he was from an early age clearly not his brother. Like Mari, even as the wave of Protestantism swept Europe and threatened to sweep Wales, the young Dug was staunchly Catholic and a Catholic circle began to form around him as the 1590's progressed with Mari acting as his facilitator in North Wales.

In 1598, the old Queen died, many saying of a broken heart with Marc now an openly declared Calvinist. Mari, by fact of her marriage was now Queen Mari. However, continuing to act as he had done for the majority of their marriage, Marc proceed to steal from her the honour of being crowned Queen. In November, in an act of indecent haste, he was crowned by his private Calvinist preacher in St Davids. Mari was still in Caernarfon, acting in her new capacity as Queen when the news reached the northern Court. Mari herself was consecrated as Queen in Bangor Cathedral in the January of 1599, but by now events were moving swiftly with the realm teetering on the brink of religious civil war. The remainder of 1599 would be a nightmare year for Mari. She would see both her estranged husband and son for the last time in the January when both were present for her consecration. Following that, Marc would continue to reside at Caernarfon, Harlech and Machynlleth, whilst Gruffud was sent to Deheubarth to bolster his fathers control in the south. Mari would continue to reside in Garth Celyn, the palace which had truly become her home.

When her husband and son died in the winter of 1600, the forty-four year old princess feared the worst. The new monarch Dafydd was a precocious 12-year-old, mercurial in temperament and having also climbed to the throne over the dead bodies of both her husband and son. Mari did not know how he would receive her. She traveled to his court attired according to her rank, that of a Queen Dowager. Dafydd received her well enough but the Queen Dowager knew well enough when her presence was unwanted. Although Dafydd was not an illegitimate king, he gained the throne through war and ultimately through treason and having the Queen of his dead rival at Court was more than his sensibilities could accommodate.

Mari retired to Garth Celyn and awaited her fate. The new king visited her in September 1600. The Palace staff had been prepped and Mari this time met him dressed as the tywysoges Gwynedd rather than the queen of Wales. Mari feared that Dafydd's claiming of the title would mean exile and at 44 with no child left living and too old to considered for a new marriage by her Austrian family she rightly feared for her future. However, prior to his meeting her, Dafydd had been lobbied by most of the senior nobility of both Gwynedd and Powys, with the Duke of March leading the delegation. Mari had become over the years beloved of her subjects in Gwynedd and more than her husband had come to represent the Crown of Gwynedd. Acting on this petition, Dafydd agreed to leave Mari as Dowager Princess of Gwynedd on condition that she not remarry without the consent of the Welsh Crown and that all titles to Gwynedd reverted to the Crown upon her death. With no child to inherit from her Mari agreed to those terms and spent the next 16 years ruling as the princess of Gwynedd. True to his part of the deal, Dafydd did not use any of the Gwynedd titles until her death, meaning that for the first 16 years the Welsh kings most senior title after the Crown was that of the Dukedom of Dyfed.

With her death, Mari was buried in Bangor Cathedral as princess of Gwynedd in her own right and not that of a spouse, a unique honour.

Titles and Styles

Marc was given the usual style of "Yr Arglwydd/The Lord" at birth, but with his grandfather's previous declaration he was also known unofficially as Ei Arglwyddiaeth, y Tywysog Marc (His Lordship, the Prince Marc). On his 12th birthday, as was becoming traditional, Marc was raised to the title Edling Cymru and with that, letters patent making him officially the Prince Marc, Edling Cymru. On his 21st birthday, his mother also granted him the title Tywysog Gwynedd.

• 15th August 1556 - 15th August 1568 - Yr Arglwydd Marc ab Elen ferch Rhodri
• 15th August 1568 - 15 Aug 1577- Ei Arglwyddiaeth, y Tywysog Marc, Edling Cymru
• 15 Aug 1577 - 4th November 1598 - Ei ras, Marc, Tywysog Gwynedd ac Edling Cymru
• 4th November 1598 - 13th January 1600 - Ei Gras, Marc ab Elen ferch Rhodri, Gan Gras Duw, Brenin Gymraeg, Tywysog Gwynedd, Arglwydd Fawr Gymru a'r Mers, Arglwydd Eryri, Glyndyfrdwy a Harlech

Preceded by: Elen

King of Wales 1598-1600

Succeeded by: Dafydd IV