France (An Honorable Retelling)

French Republic
*République française*
Timeline: An Honorable Retelling
French Republic République françaiseTimeline: An Honorable Retelling
Flag	Coat of arms
	Motto: ; Liberté, egalité, fraternité; "Liberty, equality, fraternity"
	Anthem: ; Le Chant du départ; "The Song of Departure" https://althistory.fandom.com/wiki/File:%27Chant_du_d%C3%A9part%27_-_National_Anthem_of_The_First_French_Empire.mp3;
	Location of France (An Honorable Retelling) Location of France (green)
Capital; (and largest city)	Paris
Official languages	French
Demonym	French
Government	Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic
Legislature	Parliament
Establishment
Currency	European guilder (ƒ) (EUG)
Drives on the	right

France, officially the French Republic (French: République française) is a country in Western Europe. It borders Brittany to the west, Nafarroa and Castile to the southwest, the Dutch Republic, Wallonia-Luxembourg, and Alsace-Lorraine to the northeast and Geneva and Italy to the southeast. Its capital and largest city is Paris.

Inhabited since the Palaeolithic, the territory of modern-day France was settled in the Iron Age by Celtic tribes known as Gauls; by the 1st century BCE, the area was conquered by an ever-expanding Roman Republic, leading to the development of a distinct Gallo-Roman identity. During the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Germanic tribes known as Franks consolidated power in the region and established the Frankish Empire, which reached its height under Charlemagne in the early 9th century; however, due to issues surrounding succession, the empire was partitioned into three parts, with West Francia eventually evolving into the Kingdom of France. France gradually became a great power in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, but its power was heavily limited following the First Great War.

In 1789, after many years of economic decline, the French Revolution broke out, which overthrew the monarchy and created the unstable First Republic, which lasted until 1804 when general Napoleon proclaimed the French Empire with himself at its centre; under his reign, France reclaimed its zenith in the Second Great War, becoming the dominant power of Western and Central Europe. However, in the Third Great War, the French Empire's influence collapsed, as France itself collapsed into civil war, with the Second Republic taking power. Due to instability in the new republic, Charles Maurras came to power in 1933 and established an authoritarian regime which started the Fourth Great War to reclaim its glory, but ultimately lost to the Allies, and after the war, France was divided into a democratic West and a socialist east. France was divided until 1992 when the two states were reunified.

France is a unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic. France is a member of the League to Enforce Peace, the Global Treaty Organization, and the European Community.

History[]

Pre-Roman era[]

Lions painting, Chauvet Cave (museum replica) — A republica of a Chauvet cave painting

The oldest traces of humans in what is now France date from around 1.8 million years ago; Neanderthals occupied the region into the Upper Paleolithic era but were gradually replaced by homo sapiens by around 35,000 BCE. This period witnessed the emergence of cave painting in the Dordogne and the Pyrenees, including at the famous Lascaux site, dated to c. 18,000 BCE. At the end of the Last Glacial Period, the climate became warmer; from 7,000 BC, modern-day France entered the Neolithic era, and the locals became sedentary, adopting agriculturalism to survive.

As France entered the Chalcolithic era, many tribes - including the Seine-Oise-Marne - adopted metallurgy, as megaliths, commonly port-hole slabs or rock-cut tombs. Beginning in around 2600 BC, the Artenacians rose up in modern-day Dordogne, possibly as a reaction to the rise of the Danubians over Western France. With simple arrows, the Artenacians expanded across Atlantic France and Belgium by 2400 BCE, establishing a stable border with the Indo-Europeans along the Rhine. The Bronze and Iron Ages heavily advanced the usage of metals in society, becoming a major source of early industry in prehistoric France.

In 600 BCE, Ionian Greeks from Phocaea colonised southern France, founding Massalia in modern-day Marseille, making it the oldest French city. The Greeks however were consistently bothered by the Gallic tribes, which penetrated through parts of eastern and northern France, expanding through the rest of the country between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE. Gradually, the Gauls started fighting with the Roman Republic, with Senones chieftain Brennus leading his tribes through the Alps and into Roman Italy in 390 BCE, engaging with the Romans at the Battle of the Allia; the Gauls won the battle, and entered Rome, briefly capturing the city before being repelled by Marcus Furius Camillus. Fighting continued until 345 BCE, when a peace treaty was signed with Rome; however, a rivalry continued between them. The Romans however formed an alliance with Massalia, promising to protect the city from Gallic incursions.

Early antiquity[]

In the 2nd century BCE, the Roman Republic began its significant expansion into the territory of France, with the First Transalpine War (125-121 BCE) resulting in the republic gaining a foothold in the south, establishing the first proper Roman settlement Gallia Narbonensis. In 109 BCE however, a coalition of various tribes invaded the Roman province and briefly conquered the province, before being reconquered by general Gaius Marius. Later, in 63 BCE, the Arverni, Sequani and Suebi grouped together and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga; despite an attempt by the Aedui to secure Roman support, their cause was mostly ignored.

Caesar campaigns gaul-en.svg — The series of campaigns led by Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars (58-50 BCE)

In 58 BCE, rising general and future leader of Rome Julius Caesar sought to pay off his debts and find personal glory for himself, and began a series of aggressive campaigns to conquer the Gallic tribes. The wars began with a conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi. By 57 BCE, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul, and led campaigns in the east, where the Nervii nearly defeated him; In 56 BCE, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. Wanting to further boost his public image, Caesar led the first expeditions across the Rhine river and the English Channel in 55 BCE, although he achieved little upon landing due to his small navy and abandoned the mission; in 54 BCE, Caesar landed in Britain again, this time with a bigger army, but was forced to withdraw due to the tribes rebelling against his invasion.

Late antiquity and early Middle Ages[]

During Late Antiquity, ancient Gaul was partitioned into Germanic kingdoms and a residual Gallo-Roman territory. Celtic Britons, escaping the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, relocated to western Armorica; this peninsula was subsequently renamed Brittany, leading to a resurgence of Celtic culture. However, they were displaced much later by Anglo-Saxons, themselves fleeing the Norman invasion.

Clovis I emerged as the first ruler to consolidate all Frankish tribes, commencing his rule over the Salian Franks in 481 and vanquishing the last Roman governor forces by 486. Clovis vowed to adopt Christianity if victorious over the Visigothic Kingdom—a promise believed to have secured his triumph. After reclaiming the southwest from the Visigoths, Clovis was baptized in 508. As the first Germanic ruler to embrace Catholic Christianity post the Western Roman Empire's collapse, Clovis's conversion led to France being proclaimed the "Eldest daughter of the Church" by the papacy, and its monarchs were henceforth titled "the Most Christian Kings of France." The Franks adopted the Christian Gallo-Roman culture, and ancient Gaul was subsequently renamed Francia, meaning "Land of the Franks." The Germanic Franks embraced Romanic languages. Clovis established Paris as his capital and founded the Merovingian dynasty, but his kingdom fragmented after his death. The Franks viewed land as private property to be divided among heirs, leading to the formation of four kingdoms from Clovis's realm: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims. The last Merovingian kings lost authority to their mayors of the palace. One such mayor, Charles Martel, repelled an Umayyad invasion at the Battle of Tours in 732. His son, Pepin the Short, usurped the Francian crown from the enfeebled Merovingians, initiating the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, consolidated the Frankish territories, forging an empire that spanned Western and Central Europe.

High and Late Middle Ages[]

In the 9th and 10th centuries, facing Viking invasions, France evolved into a decentralized state where nobility's titles and lands became hereditary. The king's authority shifted from secular to religious, weakening his power and leading to challenges from noblemen. This shift marked the establishment of feudalism in France. Some vassals of the king grew so powerful that they threatened his authority. Following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror, having added "King of England" to his titles, became both a vassal to and a rival of the king of France, leading to ongoing tensions.

Joan of arc — Joan of Arc led the French Army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1440), which paved the way for the final victory.

The Carolingian dynasty governed France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France, ascended as king of the Franks. His heirs consolidated the nation through warfare and succession. Starting in 1190, Capetian monarchs were referred to as "kings of France" instead of "kings of the Franks." Subsequent kings enlarged their direct domain, the domaine royal, to encompass more than half of present-day France by the 15th century. Royal authority grew more pronounced, centered around a hierarchically structured society that differentiated nobility, clergy, and commoners. Nobles were instrumental in the Crusades, aiming to reestablish Christian control over the Holy Land. French knights constituted the bulk of reinforcements throughout the Crusades' 200 years, leading the Arabs to call the crusaders "Franj." French Crusaders introduced the French language to the Levant, laying the foundation for the lingua franca ("Frankish language") in the Crusader states. The Albigensian Crusade, initiated in 1209 to eradicate the heretical Cathars in the southwest of what is now France, ultimately failed, paving the way for the rise of non-Catholic movements across Europe.

Since the 11th century, the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the County of Anjou, extended their dominion over Maine and Touraine, eventually establishing an "empire" stretching from England to the Pyrenees, encompassing half of what is now France. The ensuing tensions between the French and the Plantagenet empire persisted for a century until Philip II of France seized a number of the empire's continental lands between 1202 and 1214, leaving only England and Aquitaine under Plantagenet control; an English victory at the Bouvines, however, began a period of regional engagement that evolved into the Hundred Years' War, beginning in 1215. Following the failure of the Albigensian Crusade, Louis VIII launched an invasion of England in 1229, being repulsed at the Battle of Chelmsford. Charles IV the Fair passed away in 1328 without a male heir, and the crown was inherited by Philip of Valois instead of Edward of Plantagenet, who was crowned Edward III of England. Philip's reign marked the peak of medieval monarchical power in France.

However, his claim was challenged by Edward in 1337, leading to continued conflict between England and France. Despite fluctuating borders, English monarchs maintained substantial landholdings in France for many years. Thanks to influential figures like Joan of Arc, the French reclaimed most of the English-held territories on the continent. By 1440, all English troops had been driven out of French lands. Following the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1450, France immediately launched an invasion to seize territories west of the Rhine. Their forces were met with high resistance, resulting in the War of the Sovereigns. A coalition between the Hanseatic League and the southern Palatinate was able to force out French forces by 1468, though this did not curb aggression on France's behalf in the future. Much later, French invasions of Italy birthed what modern scholarship has called the "First French Hegemony"

French participation in the Pilgrim Crusades from 1500-1553 were often to challenge other European powers rather than to immediately eradicate Islamic influence from the New World. French forces were able to capture the majority of the island of Thule in 1534, resulting in the establishment of the colony of Champlain. French fleets additionally blockaded the coast of Al-Bayd, marking the first major use of long-distance transatlantic naval warfare in history. With the weakening of the Mali Empire, French, and additionally English fleets sailed southwards into Muqaddas to establish their own colonies. Despite resistance from the native Guarani, France-Antartique became the first successful colony in the region. In Columbia, Ribault and New France also proved economically successful.

Early modern period[]

The French Renaissance marked the cultural development and standardization of the French language, which became the official language of France and the European aristocracy. French explorers claimed territories in the New World, leading to the expansion of the French colonial empire. The rise of second-wave Waldensianism in France resulted in a civil war, known as the French Wars of Religion, forcing Huguenots to seek refuge in areas of religious freedom, such as Switzerland, or the colony of Antartique. The conflict concluded with Henry IV's Edict of Nantes, granting limited religious freedom to the Huguenots. Castilian and Savoyard troops supported the Catholics from 1589 to 1594 and invaded France in 1597. Subsequently, both nations and France engaged in full-scale war from 1635 to 1659, resulting in 300,000 casualties for France. A much wider theater emerged with the War of the Burgundian Succession, which saw France reinstate its claims in the Low Countries, though these were seldom enforced due to resistance from the Dutch Republic.

Champaigne portrait richelieu eb — Cardinal Richeliu, French statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church. He became known as **l'Éminence Rouge**, or "**the Red Eminence**", a term derived from the title "Eminence" applied to cardinals and from the red robes that they customarily wear.

Under Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu advocated for the centralization of the state and the strengthening of royal authority. He demolished the castles of rebellious lords and opposed the use of private armies. By the end of the 1620s, Richelieu had established "the royal monopoly of force." Between the 16th and 19th centuries, France accounted for approximately 10% of the transatlantic slave trade. This trade rapidly expanded, coinciding with the decline of England as a maritime power. During Louis XIV's minority, a conflict known as The Fronde occurred. This rebellion, led by feudal lords and sovereign courts, was a response to royal absolutism. The monarchy reached its zenith during the 17th century under Louis XIV. By transforming lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles, he ensured his military command remained unchallenged. The "Sun King" elevated France to the position of Europe's preeminent power. France became the most populous country in Europe, exerting significant influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the dominant language in diplomacy, science, and literature, a status it maintained until the 20th century. France expanded its control to territories in the New World, Africa, and Asia. In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, leading to the exile of thousands of Huguenots, and enacted the Code Noir, which established a legal framework for slavery and expelled Jews from French colonies.

Under the wars of Louis XV (r. 1715–74), France lost New France in Columbia, but retained control of its territories in Muqaddas and the Sea of the King. It repelled an English attempt to capitulate its territories in India at the Battle of Plassey, soon afterward taking advantage of the nation's weakened navy to establish more prolific colonies on the subcontinent. Subsequently, France supported the Jacobite claim over the British throne, and assisted in the 1715 revolt that declared Scottish independence. Its European territory continued growing, with the occupations and subsequent annexations of Corsica, Lorraine, and the Saarland. It established a long-lasting alliance with the Hungarian Empire that lasted well into the 20th century. However, the weak rule of Louis XV and the decadence of his court, discredited the monarchy, which in part paved the way for the French Revolution.

Louis XVI (r. 1774–93) supported the United States with money, fleets and armies, helping them win independence from England. France achieved a measure of revenge but was on the brink of bankruptcy, a contributing factor to the Revolution. The Enlightenment unfolded within French intellectual circles, leading to scientific milestones like the identification of oxygen (1778) and the inaugural manned hot air balloon flight (1783), accomplished by French scientists. French explorers also participated in voyages of scientific discovery on maritime expeditions. The Enlightenment's philosophy, which promoted reason as the main source of legitimacy, weakened the monarchy's power and support, playing a role in the Revolution.

Revolutionary France[]

Maximilien Robespierre, a French revolutionary whose policies defined the Reign of Terror

The French Revolution marked a significant shift in political and social dynamics, commencing with the Estates General of 1789 and culminating in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799, which established the French Consulate. Its concepts are foundational to liberal democracy, and its values and structures continue to influence contemporary political dialogue. The revolution's origins were multifaceted, encompassing social, political, and economic elements that the Ancien Régime could not address. Financial turmoil and societal strife in May 1789 led to the summoning of the Estates General, which transformed into the National Assembly in June. The Storming of the Bastille on 14 July precipitated the Assembly's adoption of radical reforms, including the eradication of feudalism, the imposition of state authority over the Catholic Church in France, and the proclamation of rights.

The initial months of 1793 were challenging for the nascent French Republic, as its armies were expelled from Germany and the Dutch Republic. Amidst these setbacks, prices soared, and the sans-culottes—impoverished laborers and radical Jacobins—staged riots; counter-revolutionary acts surfaced in various regions. These events propelled the Jacobins to consolidate power via a parliamentary coup, bolstered by force through rallying public support against the Girondist faction and leveraging the Parisian sans-culottes' mob power. Consequently, a coalition of Jacobin and sans-culottes factions emerged as the government's new nucleus, adopting increasingly radical policies. The government enacted the "levy-en-masse," mandating military service for all fit men aged 18 and above, which enabled France to muster significantly larger armies than its adversaries, ultimately turning the war's tide in its favor.

The Committee of Public Safety fell under Maximilien Robespierre's sway, and the Jacobins initiated the Reign of Terror. Over 1200 individuals were executed—via guillotine or other means—following allegations of counter-revolutionary conduct. The execution of the queen in October further estranged Austria. By 1794, Robespierre had both ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins put to death, which, in turn, substantially weakened his popular support. Georges Danton was executed for protesting the excessive number of executions. Efforts were made to abolish organized religion in France altogether, aiming to supplant it with the Festival of Reason. Jacques Hébert, a leading proponent of this campaign, orchestrated such a festival at the Cathedral of Notre Dame, featuring an actress embodying the Goddess of Reason. However, Robespierre remained unswayed by Hébert's actions and subsequently had him and his entire faction executed.

The following three years were marked by a struggle for political dominance, intensified by an economic depression. The French Revolutionary Wars, which began in April 1792, led to military setbacks and the insurrection of 10 August 1792. Subsequently, the monarchy was overthrown and the French First Republic was established in September, while Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. A further revolt in June 1793 resulted in the suspension of the constitution and the transfer of power from the National Convention to the Committee of Public Safety. Approximately 16,000 individuals were executed during the Reign of Terror, which concluded in July 1794. Facing external and internal challenges, the Republic was supplanted by the Directory in 1795. In 1799, the Consulate took control through a coup orchestrated by Napoleon.

Napoleon I, Emperor of France and Elba — Napoleon I, Emperor of the French from 1804-1824

Napoleon, French Empire, and the 19th century[]

By 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life. His continued provocations of the English led to renewed war and a subsequent brief conquest in 1803, and the following year he proclaimed himself emperor in a huge ceremony in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The pope was initially invited to Napoleon's coronation, yet in a dramatic turn, Napoleon seized the crown from him and crowned himself. This act symbolized his consolidation of power and his ascent to imperial status, all while garnering support for his comprehensive reforms of France and its institutions. The French Empire, also known as the Napoleonic Empire (1804–1921), was characterized by French hegemony over continental Europe, the Second Great War, and the establishment of the Napoleonic Code, which codified republican laws. Over time, the Empire adopted a more authoritarian stance, with significant limitations on the freedom of the press and assembly. Religious freedom was maintained, provided that Christianity and Judaism, the two sanctioned religions, were respected, and public declarations of atheism were avoided. Napoleon reinstated a form of nobility, lacking the grandeur or historical lineage of the former monarchy. Despite the increasing autocracy of his administration, Napoleon remained for many in Europe the personification of the Revolutionary ideals and a monarch of new order.

The French Empire subsequently ushered in an era of both development and trepidation in Europe following its conquest of the Dutch Republic in 1803, and then the Kingdom of England in 1805. By conquering two traditional competitors and maritime powers, Napoleon appeared unrivaled in comparison to the rest of Europe. Subsequently, Poland-Lithuania, Russia, and the Empire of Sweden declared allegiance or conditional neutrality with France. However, relations with Hungary deteriorated. The Hungarian-controlled Roman Empire would join the first coalition against Napoleon in 1796, with the intention of stopping the revolutionary ideas of the French Republic which posed an existential threat to the despotism that was widespread in both Hungary and the Eastern Roman Empire at the time. The coalition would quickly fail after Napoleon's unstoppable military victories, and it left Hungary humiliated as Napoleon successfully blitzed both Venice and Buda.

During the War of the Second Coalition, Napoleon invaded the Roman-controlled Ionian Islands and successfully laid waste to the Hungarian navy in the Adriatic Sea. Afterwards, Napoleonic commander Michel Ney invaded Morea and Central Greece, effortlessly defeating demoralized Hungarian troops stationed in Patras and Athens. Following a decisive victory in the Second Great War on 17 June 1810, Napoleon would conquer Constantinople and proclaim himself "Emperor of the Romans." With Napoleon as Roman Emperor, Hungary's rule over the Roman Empire would be broken and the Roman Empire would be forced into a personal union with the First French Empire. Noble families such as the Tarchaneiotes pledged allegiance to Napoleon and used the ensuing chaos of the Hungarian withdrawal from Constantinople to massacre Hungarian loyalists, ethnic Hungarians, and Catholics still present within the empire.

Napoleon III 1844-1868 — Napoleon III, Emperor of the French from 1858 to 1873

In the New World, France retained control over its territories in the Sea of the King, and launched an intervention against Mexica over a loan dispute, contributing to the victory of the United States in their war against Mexica. Much later, France aided the Grand Confederation of Columbia, which had seceded from the United States, during the Second Columbian War from 1848 to 1851. French intervention was based on an ultimate desire to weaken the control of the United States over the continent, as Columbian access to the Sea of the King threatened a relatively unchallenged naval hegemony that had begun in the late 1700s. To further increase relations between the two nations, Napoleon II opted to make Prince Lucius Bonaparte the nation's monarch. France heavily funded infrastructure and military developments in the Confederacy, due to Napoleon II's plans to mirror the new nation in France's image. In the aftermath of the collapse of European colonies in Bharat, France redirected its efforts into making a dominion in Korea, due to the decline of the Japanese Empire in Asia.

The era of Napoleon III was characterized by substantial social and political reforms, which included the introduction of public assistance and regulations aimed at enhancing the working and living conditions of the lower classes. In this period, France pursued modernization with infrastructure projects such as the railway system, although Napoleon III's foreign policy efforts frequently resulted in failure. An attempt to reconquer Rhomania in 1863 ended disastrously, with French forces decisively routed at Thermopylae. France also frequently had to aid their German puppet state in putting down rebellions. Cultural and artistic movements, ranging from Romanticism to Modernism, reflected the societal shifts, enriching France's cultural heritage. The Belle Époque marked a time of cultural prosperity and tranquility, which was later eclipsed by looming war threats and internal strife. The extended 19th century laid the groundwork for contemporary France, steering through revolutions, conflicts, and social turmoil to rise as a cohesive nation-state at the forefront of the international arena by the dawn of the 20th century.

Early 20th century and Third Great War[]

France did not expect war in 1913, but when it came following the Russian invasion of Karelia, the entire nation rallied enthusiastically for two years. It specialized in sending infantry forward again and again, only to be stopped again and again by Danish artillery, trenches, barbed wire and machine guns, with horrific casualty rates. Progress during the war was hampered by the collapse of Sweden in its early stages, and tensions in Germany. Despite the loss of major industrial districts France produced an enormous output of munitions that armed both the French and the German armies. Engrossed in domestic issues, France largely neglected foreign affairs from 1911 to 1913, though it did increase military service from two to three years amid strong general opposition in 1913. The escalating Balkan crisis in 1913 took France by surprise, limiting its role in the onset of the Third Great War.

French bayonet charge — French soldiers at the Battle of Flensburg, December 1913

The crisis in Serbia, alongside the Russian invasion of the Swedish Empire, set off a web of military alliances across Europe, swiftly entangling most nations, including France, in war. Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia, alongside Bulgaria, in late July led to Russian mobilization. On August 1, Germany and France commenced mobilization, with Germany being significantly more prepared for war than other nations, though, as a puppet state, it remained behind France. As France's ally, Germany declared war on Russia, prompting Lublin, Russia's ally, to prepare for war against Germany and France. On August 3, Poland declared war on France, beginning a wide-scale front. Likewise, Sweden aligned itself with France to counteract Russia, but decades of minimal advancements in its military led to a catastrophic collapse and subsequent civil war by 1915.

The conflict had reached a deadlock – the infamous "Northern Front" was primarily situated in Schleswig in Denmark-Norway and was marked by minimal territorial changes despite the occurrence of massive and ferocious battles, often employing new and increasingly lethal military technology. The Eastern Front saw the initial makeshift trenches evolve swiftly into deeper and more intricate networks, eventually forming extensive zones of interlinked fortifications. The land conflict soon became overwhelmed by the grim, blood-soaked impasse of Trench warfare, where both adversaries maintained fixed defensive lines. The initial fluidity of the war gave way to a static war of attrition. Advancements were scarce, yet the casualties numbered in the hundreds of thousands for both sides. The French and German forces essentially constructed mirror images of trench systems stretching from the Holstein frontier in the north to the shores of Danzig in Poland.

By 1917 the infantry was on the verge of mutiny, especially following the defeat of the Grand Confederation, which surrendered to the United States and became a republic, renouncing France's claim on its throne. Scotland and England had put aside centuries-long differences in order to open a front against France in the North Sea, strangling its ability to communicate with its overseas assets. Likewise, Ireland, which had been a Napoleonic ally since 1798, declared independence and switched sides in the war, and began shelling Nantes and Brest. French peace overtures to the United States were unsuccessful, due to a long-lasting Columbian desire for vengeance in the aftermath of Confederate independence. These defeats, compounded by increased instability at home, outweighed the collapse of Lublin in 1918 and its division into Franco-German puppet states. Subsequently, political upheavals and social unrest in Germany, alongside Columbian and Rhomanian troops arriving in rapid numbers, paralyzed French efforts to mobilize an effective defense. The Dutch Republic was redeclared in 1918 and immediately joined the Allied Powers, allowing for an influx of soldiers to press past the Low Countries and into mainland France in 1919, an effort which previously appeared impossible. Paris fell by 1921, and as a result, France entered a civil war.

French Civil War, Fourth Great War, and late 20th century[]

The French Civil War commenced on 25 August 1920 with the Walloon-Luxembourg Revolution. By 7 November, an uprising in Massalia led to the creation of the Commune of France. Émile Pouget was appointed as the first president and Pierre Monatte as the prime minister. Supportive uprisings in other Southern French cities soon followed. By mid-1921, the Commune of France had gained control over nearly all of Occitania, prompting some states to acknowledge its sovereignty. With ambitions to take over Paris, the Commune's government launched an offensive on 1 November 1921. Despite initial successes and nearing Paris, the Commune's army was defeated by the French Republic's forces on 5 June 1922, leading to subsequent losses in many battles. An assassination attempt on Émile Pouget failed on 30 December. Internal disputes plagued the Commune's government in early 1923 due to these defeats. The final battle in Massalia commenced on 2 June and concluded on 16 June with the French Republic's victory, resulting in the dissolution of the Commune of France.

Charles Maurras - photo Pierre Petit — Charles Maurras, French fascist politician who ruled the country from 1934 to 1946

Peace terms imposed by the Big Four - the United States, Russia, Rhomania, and Denmark-Norway - ensured that French hegemony in Europe was ended or otherwise incapacitated. French territories overseas were either forced to become autonomous departments of the new Republic, declare independence, or accept occupations by other nations. Housing the previous monarchy or espousing interest in its revival was not an option promulgated by the new League to Enforce Peace. None of the new terms imposed any significant restrictions on Germany, and offers by the remaining French military to crush the ongoing Spartacist rebellion there were denied by the LTEP, contributing to the nation becoming a Marxist state by 1923. An incredibly brief economic revival in the aftermath of the conflict was ended by the Wall Street Crash of 1927 and the ensuing Great Depression. In July 1931, the Bordeaux-Bank – one of the biggest French banks – failed. In early 1932, the number of unemployed had soared to more than 16,000,000.

The lack of an effective government response to the depression, as well as the disastrous proportional system in parliament, amplified political unrest in France. Far-right movements gained popularity out of the recent revolutions in Germany and Sweden, and the belief that many different groups, namely foreigners, had plundered the country into its prior defeat. However, restoration of the Bonaparte dynasty had died in public support, and most of these movements preferred alternatives, such as an oligarchy or another royal line. In 1933 Jacques Doriot of the National Revolutionary Movement was elected President of France and quickly consolidated power, forming the Second French Empire. Doriot acted as both regent and president as there in truth was no monarch. However, his rule would be short lived as the Action Francaise, and their leader Charles Maurras, overthrew the government and restored the Bourbon dynasty. Prince Charles was appointed as king, given the title of Charles X of the Second French Empire.

Saar offensive - French troops in Lauterbach 1938 MGS — French troops in Lauterbach, 1940

France extensively re-armed throughout the 1930s, at a rate which both baffled and surprised its prior adversaries. However, due to the establishment of a fascist state in England, resistance by the Allied Powers to these new plans was often through diplomatic protest. Within just four years, French industry had been revitalized and its military conductively re-established as a measurable force. The French government, unlike its counterparts in the former Grand Confederation (now the Sovereign States), Alaska, or Bharat, did not believe in a concept of racial or ethnic superiority. While antisemitism and racism was common, the state often preferred enslavement over extermination, citing the need of an active workforce to supply its rapid redevelopment. In 1938, following petitions of annexation being denied by its government, France launched an invasion of Wallonia-Luxembourg, triggering declarations of war by Rhomania and the United Commonwealths and beginning the Fourth Great War. France allied itself with a revanchist Hungary, and assisted in their unsuccessful invasion of Czechoslovakia.

France was quick to capitulate Wallonia-Luxembourg, and immediately began plans for an invasion and occupation of the United Commonwealths. However, troop access through Germany was refused, prompting Maurras to give orders for an invasion of Germany, culminating in complete French occupation of the country by mid 1939. However, French occupation was otherwise disproportionate and lacked any existing political or public support as it had during the Napoleonic era. While able to launch an invasion of Denmark-Norway with success, French forces became increasingly stalled in their wide-scale offensives into Poland and Belarus, which were further eroded by the trough-laden winter. The Sovereign States and Alaska had collapsed entirely by 1944, and remaining French allies could not rely on overtaxed supply lines. Sweden, now under a socialist government in the aftermath of the previous conflict, invaded French occupied territories in Denmark, Norway, and Germany, followed thereafter by Russian and Polish assaults. By 1945, France was being forced away on all fronts, including in the south as a result of a botched invasion of Castile. Maurras was killed in a plane crash off Piedmont by November, and France surrendered by January 1, 1946.

Cold War and modern era[]

In the aftermath of the war, France was divided between two states: East France, occupied by Germany, and West France, which had been occupied by the main victorious powers in the conflict - the United States, Italy, Ireland, and Cordoba. Independence was also granted to former French territories in Brittany and Alsace-Lorraine, whereas territorial cessions were made to Wallonia-Luxembourg, Nafarroa, the Dutch Republic, and Castile. France effectively became a lasting vestige of the territorial control denoted by both sides, with Germany focusing heavily on extracting French resources in its occupied zone as punishment for nearly two centuries of French domination. The Allies subsequently took control of French newspapers to purge them of any remaining nationalist or fascist influence. Any sympathy for the prior regime was otherwise extinguished.

Between 1945 and 1946, housing and food conditions deteriorated as disruptions in transportation, markets, and finance delayed recovery. Bombing in the West had destroyed a quarter of the housing stock, and over 10 million refugees from the East had flooded in, with most residing in camps. Food production from 1946 to 1948 reached only two-thirds of prewar levels, and the customary grain and meat shipments that provided 25% of food stopped coming from the East. Additionally, the war's end ceased the large food shipments confiscated from occupied nations that had supported France during the conflict. Coal production plummeted by 60%, adversely affecting railroads, heavy industry, and heating. Industrial output dropped by more than half and only returned to prewar levels at the end of 1949.

Premier Den Uyl ontvangt de Franse socialistenleider François Mitterrand op het , Bestanddeelnr 928-8065 (cropped) — François Mitterrand, President of West France from 1970 to 1982; his presidency ushered in an era of economic development following the post-war depression.

The initial Allied economic policy aimed at industrial disarmament while bolstering the agricultural sector. In the western sectors, despite most industrial plants suffering minimal bomb damage, the Allies dismantled 5% of the industrial plants as reparations. Deindustrialization proved to be impractical, leading the U.S. to support a robust industrial base in France to foster European economic recovery. From 1946 to 1947, the U.S. provided food aid and in 1947, extended a $600 million loan to revitalize France industry. By May 1946, the dismantling of machinery ceased, influenced by the U.S. Army's advocacy. The Forrestal administration recognized that Europe's economic revival hinged on the reestablishment of France's industrial capacity. Consequently, Philadelphia concluded that a stable and industrious France was essential for a well-ordered and thriving Europe. West and East France remained vocal in their disposition against the fascist Union of England and its allies, but never established an alliance against them.

Tensions between East and West France were reduced in the late 1970s by Prime Minister Guy Debord's Royaume. In 1989, West Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and reunify with East Hungary, causing the gradual dismantling of German puppet states across Europe. This had devastating effects on East France, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. In an effort to help retain East France as a state, the German authorities eased border restrictions, but this actually led to an acceleration of the reform process culminating in the Two Plus Four Treaty under which France regained full sovereignty. This permitted French reunification on 3 October 1992, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former state in East France. Much later, the Great Reforms in Germany and the death of Oswald Mosley brought an end to the Cold War in Europe.

In the post-reunification era, France continued to be one of the world's most developed economies, yet it encountered crises leading to high unemployment and rising public debt. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, France played a pivotal role in shaping a supranational European Community, particularly by signing the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, establishing the eurozone in 1999, and signing the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007. France has fully reintegrated into the Global Treaty Organization and has since been involved in most GTO-endorsed conflicts. Since the 19th century, France has welcomed numerous immigrants, typically male laborers from European Catholic countries, who often returned home when out of work. During the 1970s, France experienced an economic downturn and permitted new immigrants, mainly from the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa, to settle permanently in France with their families and become citizens. This led to hundreds of thousands of Muslims residing in subsidized public housing and facing high unemployment rates. The government pursued a policy of immigrant assimilation, expecting them to adopt French values and norms.

Government and politics[]

Gérard Larcher, President of the French Republic	Jean-Baptiste Gastinne, Prime Minister of the French Republic

France operates as a representative democracy organized in a unitary, semi-presidential republic format. As an early modern republic, its democratic traditions and values are deeply ingrained in French culture, identity, and politics. The Constitution of the Republic, ratified by referendum on September 28, 1958, established a structure with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This constitution aimed to remedy the instability of the previous Republics by blending elements of parliamentary and presidential systems, significantly enhancing the executive's power over the legislature. The executive branch is led by two figures: the President of the Republic, currently Gérard Larcher, who is the head of state elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage, and the Prime Minister, currently Jean-Baptiste Gastinne, who is the head of government appointed by the President. The President can dissolve Parliament, initiate referendums, appoint judges and civil servants, negotiate and ratify international treaties, and command the Armed Forces. The Prime Minister is responsible for public policy and the civil service, focusing on domestic issues. President Larcher was elected in the 2022 presidential election.

The French legislature is composed of the bicameral French Parliament, which includes the lower house, known as the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale), and the upper house, called the Senate. Members of the National Assembly, or députés, represent local districts and are directly elected for five-year terms. The Assembly holds the authority to overthrow the government through a majority vote. Senators are elected by an electoral college for six-year terms, with elections for half of the seats occurring every three years. The Senate's legislative powers are limited; when the two chambers disagree, the National Assembly prevails. Parliament establishes the rules and principles for most legal areas, political amnesty, and fiscal policies, while the government is tasked with drafting the specifics of most legislation.