Gott mit uns (German) ("God with us") | |||||||
| Anthem | "Deutschlandlied" | ||||||
| Capital (and largest city) |
Berlin | ||||||
| Other cities | Vienna, Frankfurt, Munich | ||||||
| Language | German | ||||||
| Religion | Protestant, Roman Catholic | ||||||
| Demonym | German | ||||||
| Government | Constitutional monarchy | ||||||
| Legislature | Reichstag | ||||||
| Emperor | Friedrich IV Hohenzollern | ||||||
| Chancellor | Annalena Baerbock | ||||||
| Established | 1871 | ||||||
| Currency | German mark (DEM) | ||||||
Germany, officially the German Empire (German: Deutsches Reich), is the largest country in Europe by population. Germany is a global power and commands enormous political, economic, scientific, and cultural influence. In addition, Germany is a military power and can extend hard power thanks to its fleet and numerous bases throughout the rest of the world.
Since its formation in 1871, Germany has been a constant epicenter for European affairs. Germany was a central participant in both World Wars and as a result suffered from either internal discontent, as in the First, or outright invasion and occupation by external enemies, as in the Second. Following the First World War Germany became a superpower, but the devastation from the Second World War allowed the United States to become the dominant superpower in the world, a position it still holds.
Since World War Two, Germany has made European unity and economic development the cornerstones of its foreign policy. The Marshall Plan from the United States allowed much of Germany and Europe to be quickly rebuilt and Berlin planned a continent-wide economic community to foster closer trade ties and transit between nations. Today the European Union is one of the world's strongest economic and political institutions. Germany is also a member of the Permanent Security Council of the United Nations and a leader in numerous other international organizations.
History[]
Earlier History[]
For more information see main article: History of Germany
Blood and Iron[]
Otto von Bismarck, the "Iron Chancellor" that effectively unified Germany and turned it into a global power.
Modern Germany came into being in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. The south German states of Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg, and Hesse joined the Prussian-led North German Confederation and formed the German Empire. Internally, Germany remained dominated by Prussia. The Prussian capital of Berlin became the capital of Germany and much of the government was from Prussia, including the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. However, German unification was not yet considered complete. Tiny Luxembourg was claimed by German nationalists as part of Germany and the German state of Austria was deliberately excluded from the Unification of 1871.
The newly united Germany sought to become recognized and respected throughout the world. To that end, Germany sponsored various economic and geopolitical treaties with neighbors such as Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, and Great Britain. In addition, while Bismarck was principally concerned with European affairs, Germany hosted the "Scramble for Africa" in Berlin and was able to grab numerous colonies, becoming the third-largest colonial power at the time behind Great Britain and France. Internal development led to Germany becoming one of the most industrialized countries on Earth and a scientific superpower with more Nobel Prizes than Britain or the United States.
Despite such prosperity, Germany began to gain enemies. Its western neighbor France continued to resent its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. When Wilhelm II came to power, he quarreled with Bismarck on the direction of the Empire, leading to Bismarck's resignation and the rapid buildup of German military and naval strength, alienating Great Britain and others in Europe. Frequent disputes and military threats by the Kaiser over colonial borders led to many nations objecting to Germany's abrasive foreign policy. By 1914, Germany was almost entirely alone in the confusing web of European alliances, with only Austria-Hungary a firm ally.
The Weltkrieg[]
The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist proved to be the spark that would set the world alight. Austria-Hungary demanded retribution and German officials privately gave a so-called "blank cheque", interpreted as full German support for Austrian action. As a result, Austria-Hungary issued an intentionally unacceptable ultimatum to the Serbian government and declared war following Serbia's refusal. It is because of this "blank cheque" that many historians believe Germany to be partially responsible for starting World War I, although this is disputed by some German historians and many of both camps attribute more blame to Austria and the Serbian Black Hand group. Austria-Hungary's August declaration resulted in the European system of alliances to activate, launching the other great powers of Russia, Germany, France, and Great Britain into war in short order.
The well-trained, well-led and technologically advanced German army enjoyed numerous tactical successes over its European opponents, such as the nearly successful Schlieffen Plan against France, the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive against Russia, the Battle of Jutland against Britain, and joint operations with Austria-Hungary that knocked out Serbia and Montenegro in late 1915. German diplomatic efforts were also successful in retaining Italian loyalty to the Central Powers and bringing in Romania and Greece into the war on Germany's side. However, strategically Germany remained at a disadvantage. Germany's colonies were rapidly seized by British, French, and Japanese forces while the Entente forces retained much larger populations and mobilized numbers of troops.
Paul von Hindenburg, the general and de facto dictator responsible for leading Germany through the closing stages of World War I and its immediate aftermath.
By 1918, despite Germany's successes, the war effort remained dire. The British blockade was increasingly placing strain on German society, with supplies of food, certain metals, and other materials required for civilian and military needs running perilously low and causing considerable damage during the so-called "Turnip Winter" of 1917. The October Revolution of 1917 succeeded in forcing Russia to drop out of the war, enabling dozens of German, Austro-Hungarian, and Romanian divisions to move to the Western Front. The generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff effectively ran a military dictatorship for the last two years of the war and social agitation demanded either a quick victory or peace. Ludendorff devised a series of offensives along the Western Front known overall as the "Kaiserschlacht", where fresh divisions using new infiltration tactics would smash through tired Entente troops and bring an end to the war. The Spring Offensive was widely successful as German forces captured the Channel ports and the railway junction of Amiens. Soon afterwards, the French government abandoned Paris in panic, rapidly demoralizing Entente forces. Within days, Entente governments called for an armistice and negotiations for the end of the war began.
Following mediation by the neutral United States and its president Woodrow Wilson, Germany managed to finalize a peace that ended the war. However, the peace agreements with the Western Powers were widely recognized to be unsatisfactory by many within the belligerent nations. While Germany gained some colonial territory at the expense of France, its overall territorial gains in western Europe was limited to Luxembourg. British opposition prevented Germany from gaining any long-term gains from France or Belgium, although the territory surrounding the city of Nancy was temporarily separated from France. German negotiators had to be content to reparations and its new eastern satellites, as they knew that the German army had reached its breaking point and German society was one crisis away from revolution.
Spartakusbund and Kronekrieg[]
Of the Triple Alliance members within World War I, Germany was the only one to emerge with relatively little damage. Austria-Hungary had effectively collapsed as a result of the economic damage, the ineffectiveness of its armed forces, and the tensions of its numerous ethnic groups. Italy, while gaining considerable territory from France and the collapsed Ottoman Empire, eventually believed that such gains were not enough to pay for the costs suffered and experienced a Fascist takeover early in the 1920s. Hindenburg, the effective dictator of Germany, insisted that he should retain power to guide Germany through the immediate post-war world and ensure that the leftist movements that threatened Germany's aristocratic government would not succeed. In addition, Germany faced Polish insurgents operating in Posen, southern Silesia, and southeastern Prussia who hoped to unify with Poland.
German troops occupy crucial government buildings and infrastructure during the Spartakusbund uprisings in 1919.
Popular anger began to boil over, with the far-left Spartakusbund calling for revolts from the army and revolution against the Kaiser and his ministers. Street battles between police and radicals began to break out across Germany and German troops, frustrated at having suffered so much for so long with little apparent gain, refused Hindenburg's orders to intervene in Austria or Russia. With growing social anger, the Spartakusbund launched an uprising across numerous German cities, principally Berlin. After nearly two weeks of fighting, government loyalists were able to put down Spartakus supporters in the January Uprising, forcing their leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg to go underground or flee abroad to escape persecution. In the midst of the Crisis, Kaiser Wilhelm II was aware of the growing popular angst with Hindenburg's retention of power and his heavy-handed measures to stamp out disorder. Hindenburg was also aware that his control over the armed forces would not last if the German government resisted reforms or intended to intervene in Russia or Hungary. The Kaiser and Hindenburg negotiated an agreement for Hindenburg to stand down following the conclusion of the Crisis and appointed a government led by Friedrich Ebert of the Social Democrats, which was confirmed by elections held in late 1919.
Chancellor Friedrich Ebert was appointed as the German government believed him the best chance for Germany to avoid revolution. Ebert championed reforms to the constitution that limited the monarchy's power and consolidated Germany's domestic situation, albeit at the loss of external influence and some territories.
Ebert championed numerous changes to the German constitutional order, namely the reduction of influence and privilege within government accorded to the monarch and the Junker noble class. Namely, the Reichstag's power over declarations of war and the appointment of the chancellor and other major officials was increased. The German Emperor retained ceremonial power over these actions, but in practice became a constitutional monarch similar to that of Great Britain. Wilhelm II protested these changes bitterly but was convinced of their necessity by Ebert in order to avoid revolution. Numerous other German states passed similar measures for their own monarchs, often independently, and throughout Germany women were granted the right to vote. Internationally, Ebert had successes and drawbacks in establishing German prominence in the new European order. During Ebert's administration, Germany gained and lost territory thanks to the annexation of Austria and the Greater Poland Uprising, respectively. Additionally, German forces tentatively got involved in skirmishes against Soviet Russia to protect its new client states, beginning the Eastern War.
Internally, the admission of Luxembourg and Austria and the loss of Polish territories upset the established federal order. These two states, as well as others in Germany such as Bavaria, were often uncomfortable with the enormous power that the Kingdom of Prussia possessed within the federal structure of Germany. Austria's admission in 1919 effectively began the Kronekrieg, or "Crown War" between Prussian conservatives and others in Germany that sought to reduce Prussia's considerable influence. This effort was opposed by the Kaiser and Ebert, who feared that pushing the conservatives too far would only generate more social unrest and conflict. Ebert's Social Democrats ultimately lost public confidence after allowing the loss of Polish and Danish-inhabited territory in order to gain international confidence. The slow process of the Eastern War also weakened their popularity as conservatives claimed the Social Democrats supported the Soviets through inaction. Despite Ebert stepping down to allow the Social Democrats to present a new face in Philipp Scheidemann, a center-right coalition led by the Center Party took power after the 1923 elections.
Charles I of Austria oversaw the integration of Austria into Germany and was a leading figure of the Kronekrieg, the political struggle to raise Austrian influence and reduce Prussia's.
Despite the presence of the conservative German People's Party in the government, the Center Party, with its power base in southern Germany, supported steps to reduce Prussia's dominance. The Archduchy of Austria was confirmed to be equivalent in power and prestige to the kingdoms of Germany by mid-1920. With government acquiescence, the local German-Hanoverian Party succeeded on holding a local referendum on re-establishing the Kingdom of Hanover in 1924. Despite Wilhelm II privately expressing disapproval, the vote went through and was approved by local voters. The Kingdom of Hanover was restored by the end of 1924. These steps were seen by domestic and international observers as more evenly distributing royal power throughout Germany. Although Austria, Bavaria, and Hanover formed a triumvirate to reduce Prussia's power, there was little more that they could do due to Prussia's constitutionally enshrined preeminence within Germany. Another issue in the international order was the status of Bohemia. Independent since the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, much of Bohemia's industry and economy was dominated by local ethnic Germans. Wilhelm II hoped to place a German monarch, likely one of his sons, in Bohemia to confirm German influence. In another victory for the anti-Prussia coalition, Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen, a Hapsburg, was placed on the throne of Bohemia.
The Golden Twenties[]
Despite the uncertainty surrounding the Empire at the start of the 1920s, things began to improve as internal discontent began to die down and Germany emerged largely victorious in international negotiations. Treaties signed with the Soviet Union and the Western Entente gave Germany a considerable buffer of client states in Eastern Europe and a small but considerable number of additional colonies and mandates abroad. Wilhelm II boasted that Germany was now the pre-eminent power in the world, a claim that was not entirely true as Britain remained mostly intact and the United States remained the largest economy. Nonetheless, Germany was now in a prominent position within Europe.
1921 was the fiftieth anniversary of the German Empire's founding, and while things remained politically tenuous, national pride demanded celebrations. Parades, festivals, and other events were held to demonstrate pride in Germany and the belief that Germany triumphed in its greatest crisis. Wilhelm II even had the German State Crown, a purely heraldic device, fabricated as part of the celebration, a decision that led to derision by Social Democrats and trade unions but supported by the conservative nobles. Wilhelm II, other monarchs, ministers, and military officers regularly went on tours around the nation and their European allies.
With a growth market afforded by Germany's new colonies and clients, the German economy quickly rebounded from the stress of war. New raw materials from Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe were sent to Germany proper for consumption and manufacturing, which in turn were sold to both Germany's clients and the rest of the world. The growth of the German economy, and the growth of Europe's economy more broadly, led to an economic boom, and the 1920s quickly became referred to as the "Golden Twenties" within Germany. In addition, there was great growth in the arts and culture during the 1920s as well, both within Germany and throughout the Western World.
Geography[]
Germany is largely located in central Europe. Germany's easternmost point is East Prussia and westernmost is in Alsace-Lorraine, while its northernmost point is in Schleswig-Holstein and its southernmost is in the Austrian Alps. Germany formerly held the second largest colonial empire in the world. Since the return of the Tsingtao concession to China in 1997, Germany has not held any overseas territory outside of Europe.
Politics[]
Germany is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The office of German Emperor is constitutionally tied to the King of Prussia, ensuring that the same individual holds both offices. If the German Emperor were to abdicate his office, he would constitutionally be obligated to abdicate as King of Prussia as well. The German Emperor is the head of state and nominally the commander-in-chief of Germany's armed forces. While there are many other monarchies due to Germany's federal structure, the monarch of Prussia commands authority over the other monarchs in a manner frequently described as "first among equals" thanks to his position as German Emperor.
Effective government authority is exercised by the executive cabinet of the Chancellor, who is chosen by the Reichstag, the lower house of Germany's parliament. The Reichstag is composed of the popularly elected representatives of the general public. The Bundesrat, the upper house of parliament, is composed of officials appointed by each one of Germany's federal states. Agreement between Reichstag and Bundesrat is necessary for far-reaching reforms or legislation within Germany. Although rare, the German federal government has the authority to force changes on its constituent states when it confirms that the state is not upholding "constitutional order".
Germany has undergone considerable reform since its initial formation in 1871. At the time of formation, the German Emperor held considerable constitutional powers, including the power to declare war and to appoint or dismiss the Chancellor at will. In 1918, at the urging of Chancellor Maximillian von Baden, the future Grand Duke of Baden, several amendments to Germany's constitution, labeled the October Constitution, were added to transform the government into a true constitutional monarchy. Following World War II, additional reforms were made in the so-called 1946 December Constitution. In the December Constitution, Reichstag representatives would be paid salaries, broadening the base of potential representatives. Furthermore, the existing militaries of remaining German states were centralized under federal control and new mechanisms were created to enable Chancellors who were not also the Minister-President of Prussia. To date, there have been two Chancellors who represented other states in Germany: Heinz Kissinger of Bavaria and Arnold Schwarzenegger of Austria.
The dominant political organizations within Germany since the end of World War II are the center-left Social Democratic Party of Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD) and the center-right German People's Party (Deutsche Volkspartei, DVP). Smaller but still significant parties include the center-left German Democratic Party (Deutsche Demokratische Partei, DDP) and the center-right German Centre Party (Deutsche Zentrumspartei, DZP).
Administrative Divisions[]
Germany is comprised of 29 states. These states vary in terms of territory, population, and governance. The vast majority of these states are monarchies; the remaining three are republican city-states. Each state has high autonomy regarding its own internal administration and affairs. By law, the five kingdoms and the Archduchy of Austria are also allowed to possess state national guards. After passage of the December Constitution, all German states must be democratic in government. In practice, Germany is dominated by a handful of states: Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg, Hesse, Saxony, and Hanover.
Each state gets a different number of votes in the Bundesrat, the German upper legislative body meant to represent the states and their nobility. Prussia, as the largest state, has the most representatives and therefore the most votes. Many of the smaller states only have one, but since there are nineteen smaller states they can potentially form a powerful voting group.
Uncommonly, a dynastic line of one of the states may die off, leaving the throne vacant. When this occurred, it was decided that the German Emperor and the Chancellor jointly propose a replacement, which then must be confirmed by both the Reichstag and the Bundesrat. The most recent time this occurred was in 1921, when Mecklenburg was reunited into a single state.
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| State | Capital | |
|---|---|---|
| Kingdoms (Königreiche) | ||
|
Prussia (Preußen) | Berlin |
|
Bavaria (Bayern) | Munich |
|
Saxony (Sachsen) | Dresden |
|
Württemberg | Stuttgart |
|
Hanover (Hannover) - re-established in 1924 | Hanover |
| Archduchies (Erzherzogtümer) | ||
|
Austria (Österreich) - annexed in 1919 | Vienna |
| Grand Duchies (Großherzogtümer) | ||
|
Baden | Karlsruhe |
|
Hesse (Hessen) | Darmstadt |
|
Luxemburg – annexed in 1919 | Luxemburg |
|
Mecklenburg | Schwerin |
|
Oldenburg | Oldenburg |
|
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach) | Weimar |
| Duchies (Herzogtümer) | ||
|
Alsace-Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen) – annexed in 1871, Duchy created in 1921 | Straßburg |
|
Anhalt | Dessau |
|
Brunswick (Braunschweig) | Braunschweig |
|
Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg) | Altenburg |
|
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha) | Coburg – Gotha |
|
|
Saxe-Meiningen (Sachsen-Meiningen) | Meiningen |
| Principalities (Fürstentümer) | ||
|
Lippe | Detmold |
|
Reuss-Gera (Junior Line) | Gera |
|
Reuss-Greiz (Senior Line) | Greiz |
|
Schaumburg-Lippe | Bückeburg |
|
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | Rudolstadt |
|
|
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen | Sondershausen |
|
Waldeck-Pyrmont | Arolsen |
|
Liechtenstein - annexed in 1921 | Vaduz |
| Free Hanseatic cities (Freie Hansestädte) | ||
|
Bremen | |
|
Hamburg | |
|
Lübeck | |
International Relations[]
As a dominant player in European politics, Germany has strong relations with a majority of European players and is seen as the epicenter of NATO's European cohort and the European Union. Although Germany's relations have been cold with other European nations in the past, especially France, Germany now holds close and friendly alliances with the majority of European countries.
Germany maintains relationships with almost all nations of its former colonial empire. German ties are especially close with Assyria, Katanga, Namibia, Polynesia, Tanganyika, and Zanzibar. Of its former colonial empire, the only nation Germany does not have any formal ties with is Kivu due to its communist regime and poor human rights record.
Military []
Germany's armed forces are divided into the Imperial German Army, the Imperial German Navy, and the Imperial German Air Force. In addition, the Imperial German Army utilizes special forces units called Jagdkommando. The unified German military is the strongest single military power on the European continent and one of the strongest worldwide, alongside the United States and China.
Historically, Germany has also utilized paramilitary formations called Freikorps when the military had pressing manpower needs or wanted to ensure sufficient distance between the military and controversial actions. The German military has not supported any Freikorps units since the Kongofreikorps in the 1970s.