Henry Clay Sr. (April 12, 1777 – June 29, 1852) was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the ninth president of the United States from 1833 to 1837. Prior to his presidency, he represented Kentucky in both the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives; He was also the seventh House speaker as well as the ninth secretary of state. He unsuccessfully ran for president in the 1824 Presidential Election, but won in 1832; however, he gave up the Whig nomination to General William H. Harrison after his tenure, but would go on to run again in 1844 against James K. Polk and lose. He helped found both the National Republican Party and the Whig Party. For his role in defusing sectional crises, he earned the appellation of the "Great Compromiser" and was part of the "Great Triumvirate" of Congressmen, alongside fellow Whig Daniel Webster and Democrat and Vice President John Calhoun.
Early Life[]
Henry Clay Sr. was born on April 12, 1777 at the Clay Homestead in Hanover, Virginia. He was the seventh of nine children born to Baptist Minister John Clay and his wife, Elizabeth Hudson. At the time of his birth, his family owned hundreds of acres and 18 slaves, but when his father, affectionately called Sir John, died in 1781, Henry was left with 2 personal slaves, the same amount given to his brothers.
The American Revolution was ongoing during Clay's birth, and due to his family being staunch patriots, the British raided their estate, leaving them in a precarious economic position. However, Elizabeth refused to let her family be confined to this fate, and married her husband's cousin, naval captain Henry Watkins, having seven more children by him. Watkins was a kind stepfather who acted as Clay's teacher, mentoring him on how to read and write. When Watkins moved the family to live with his brother in Kentucky, Clay stayed behind for a clerkship in Virginia's judiciary system, arranged by Watkins himself. The job proved to be successful, as Clay found his first employment in Richmond. There, he caught the eye of George Wythe, the ailing teacher of Thomas Jefferson, the future president. Clay was employed as Wythe's secretary, remaining in the position for a few years. Wythe then recommended him to the state's attorney general Robert Brooke, who admitted Clay to the state bar at last.
In 1799, Clay went to Kentucky, where he met local woman Lucretia Hart, going on to marry her shortly after at Lexington. Her father was General Thomas Hart, and due to her being in a military family, General Hart helped Clay gain clients and business overall (it also happened Hart is the grand-uncle of the Benton Brothers who nearly killed Andrew Jackson when he was a general.) Together, they birthed eleven children, who would all somewhat inherit their father's likings (e.g. Henry Jr. became a general, James became a diplomat, and Morrison became a thoroughbred racer.) It is also noted that Clay enjoyed gambling, though it would put him into debt one time; luckily, it was waivered.
The Great Compromiser[]
Clay set up his legal office in Kentucky, practicing law at Lexington. He had many notable clients: among them were the grandfather of John C. Breckinridge, vice presidential candidate; Robert Todd, father-in-law of future president Abraham Lincoln; and vice president Aaron Burr. Clay and his partner would acquit Burr of all charges in the Burr Conspiracy, though President Jefferson convinced the duo later on of Burr's guilt.
Clay soon entered politics, initially under the Democratic-Republican Party. In Congress, he criticized the Alien and Sedition Acts passed by President John Adams, and wrote writings under the pseudonym Scaevola to advocate for the gradual emancipation of slavery. Shortly after, he was elected to the U.S. House for the first time - he successfully stopped gerrymandering to ensure Kentucky went to Jefferson in the 1804 Presidential Election, blocking the efforts of politicians like Felix Gundy to do so. During this time, he advocated for public works, something he would emphasize throughout his political career.
Shortly after this, Clay was elected as speaker of the Kentucky State House. After Jefferson placed embargo acts against foreign imports, Clay supported this decision by proposing a legislation that promoted domestic goods instead of foreign ones - it was passed by the state legislature, but the only man against it was Representative Humphrey Marshall, a stubborn man; in response, Clay challenged Marshall to a duel - The result was both men firing at each other and getting hit, but surviving - they would both receive censures, though Clay's was less harsh than Marshall's.
In 1810, following the resignation of Judge Buckner Thruston from the federal court, Clay was selected as his successor. He became fierce vocal opposition to imperialism, becoming part of the war hawks, which were groups of politicians who demanded war against America's enemies, specifically the British Empire. When the issue of keeping the First Federal Bank came up, Clay helped the prevention of its re-charter, arguing it infringed on states' rights, which he was a strong advocate of in many cases. He went on to run for the Senate, winning a seat, but resigning after a year of discontent, running instead for representative once more, to which he won.
The following elections brought in a wave of young politicians, most of whom were war-hawks; among them was Clay. Supported by the war hawks, Clay was elected speaker at the 12th Congress; this election marked Clay as the youngest speaker for several years, and also one of the newest politicians to become speaker. Clay wielded much power during his tenure, and appointed many of his allies to key positions in the U.S. House's legislation - but he did not only consider relationships when making appointments, he made sure they were fair and courteous, and not outright corrupt and biased. His rise to power was backed by President James Madison, though Clay would play a crucial role in the Madison Administration: he called for the War of 1812. Despite recognizing the dangers of warring a world power, Clay knew it was necessary in order to stop a humiliating submission to Britain. During the war, Clay stayed in communication with prominent politicians like Secretary of State James Monroe, albeit he proceeded to call for the replacement of some politicians he found unfit for their roles. When DeWitt Clinton of New York was elected president at the beginning of the war, Clay was kept in the presidential administration, as Clinton was well-aware of Clay's power. When the British populace began to protest for the war's end due to economic and personal reasons, Clay was asked by the president to accompany him on the diplomatic party, knowing Clay was the leading war-hawk. Though reluctant, Clay agreed, stepping down from speaker for a brief period. During the visit, Clay clashed with Secretaries Quincy Adams and Albert Gallatin. Both men wanted to end the war as quickly as possible, even if the terms were not very favorable for America; Clay refused, wanting optimal terms for the union due to his hardcore belief that Britain desired peace - for Clay's determination, the Treaty of Ghent was favorable towards America. Upon his return, Clay was re-elected as speaker, and when President Clinton introduced a domestic package that included stances Clay favored such as public works, domestic goods, and a spending increase for the highly untrained military, and, along with South Carolina Representative John Calhoun, Clay passed a tariff that tackled the latter parts of the package. With the assistance of Treasury Secretary Alexander Dallas, the Second Federal Bank was formed in 1816, just before Dallas's death a year later. Clay also proposed the Bonus Bill, which would fund public works nationwide, which was, through much debate by Clay, passed by Congress and approved by President Clinton, who he himself was a staunch advocate of internal improvement. Clinton went on to set aside a set fund for this bill at a moderate rate to allow enough money for the projects while making sure America had enough money for other funding projects so nothing went bankrupt.
When Clinton left office in 1817, The Democratic-Republicans were split between Secretary Monroe and Secretary of War William Crawford. Clay had a strong opinion of both men, but supported Monroe more due to the time they spent together, and Monroe won the election, defeating Federalist candidate Rufus King. Monroe immediately offered Clay the position of Secretary of War in his cabinet; Clay declined, wishing for Secretary of State, and was angered to find out the position had gone to Secretary Adams instead. So enraged was Clay that he refused to let Monroe's inauguration take place in the House Chamber, and subsequently did not attend at all. In the middle of Monroe's presidency, a dispute arose over the statehood of Missouri, in which New York Representative Junior Tallmadge wanted it to be a free state, to which was vetoed by Clay, despite being a staunch advocate for emancipation. Illinois Senator Jesse Thomas came up the Missouri Compromise, which, after edited by Clay, allowed Missouri to join as a slave state on the condition Maine joined as a free state.
When the Decolonization of Latin America began, Clay called on the president to act; Monroe did not, however, fearful that it would put a stake in his plans to acquire Florida. At that same time, General Andrew Jackson seized Florida from the Seminole peoples. While this was Monroe's plan, Jackson endangered the plan with his seizure of Pensacola, which was Spanish. Clay, along with Secretary Calhoun, were outraged at the unconstitutional and immoral acts of Jackson - Clay attacked Jackson's character as a vicious dictator; this did not sit well with Jackson, beginning a long rivalry between him and Clay, though it would die down temporarily after Florida was purchased and a border was delineated with New Spain in a treaty conjured by Adams.
As Monroe's tenure came to an end, many Democratic-Republicans put their bids for the presidency, as the Federalists had been weakened too severely to put up candidates. Clay was among the candidates, having left his position as Speaker, (He would be the longest in history until Sam Rayburn), with his main opponents being Adams, Crawford, and Calhoun; He did not initially take his campaign seriously until Jackson entered the race. After Crawford suffered a stroke, he exited the race, and Calhoun followed suit after Jackson began to make major gains. In the election, Clay only secured Kentucky, Ohio, and Missouri; he aimed to win New York and Louisiana as well, but due to the lack of solemnity in this campaign, he lost both states. Though humiliated, the supporters of Adams and Jackson appealed to Clay to get him and his supporters' backings. In the end, through private meetings, Clay backed Adams and was appointed his Secretary of State. Following Adams's victory, Jackson and his supporters were outraged, claiming the victory was via a corrupt bargain.
Clay held a huge oversight during his tenure. Most notably, Clay was responsible for the firm upholding of the Monroe Doctrine. Though he failed in his negotiations with the Europeans, he sought to spite them and protect American interests by assisting the emerging states to the south of the country. He successfully negotiated commercial treaties with Latin America, ensuring Europeans had no trade advantage. When Simón Bolívar, the revolutionary war hero of the Latins, convened the Panama Congress to bring Americans together, through some assistance from President Adams, delegates were able to be sent to the Congress, and soon enough, diplomatic ties were strengthened with fellow Americans, causing multiple ambassadorships to be formed in the coming years. When Adams displayed to Clay a list of propositions he had for Congress, Clay warned him most would be turned down, which is exactly what happened; fortunately, some projects, like the National Road and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal were approved. Clay became one of the founders of the short lived National Republican Party, which staunchly supported Adams. Both sides spread lies about the other, with a common NRP lie being that Jackson was a demagogue and his wife Rachel participated in bigamy. Though Clay was not involved, Jackson antagonized him for the rest of his life. Despite the efforts of National Republicans like Clay and his ally, Representative Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, it was not enough to defeat Jackson, who was very popular due to the populace wanting a way out of Adams's Administrative Policies.
Race to the White House[]
When Jackson came to power, the rivalry continued: The new president suspected Clay in being involved in the Petticoat Affair, in which both the late Rachel Jackson and Secretary of War John Eaton's wife, Peggy, were accused of bigamy. When the Indian Removal Act was passed, Clay strongly opposed it, believing it to be unjust and immoral. The Maysville Road was a proposed plan by Clay during this time to create a road between Ohio and Kentucky, forming a basis for a better highway system - it was vetoed. Angry Kentuckians and Ohioans banded together under Clay in their outrage. He returned to the Senate shortly after, defeating Representative Richard Johnson - his return marked the longest gap between tenures at 20 years.
With Adams having lost his touch, Clay announced his presidential campaign in 1831; Jackson announced his own re-election run shortly after. Jackson's policies tackled the national bank, Indian Removal, and nullification - it earned him the animosity of many, including his former vice John Calhoun, who resigned during his term. Clay was officially nominated at the NR Convention. On the issue of the bank, Jackson did not wish to re-charter the Second Bank, as requested by president Nicholas Biddle; Clay, on the other hand, wished to, but was advised not to take a decisive stance until a victory, and it helped him tremendously. Despite Clay losing the popular vote, he won the electoral college with 40 more votes than Jackson, earning him the presidency.
Going Forward[]
Henry Clay and his running-mate, John Sergeant, were inaugurated together by Chief Justice John Marshall, the last inauguration by the chief justice before his death in 1835 (to which he would be replaced by Associate Justice John McLean by President Clay), on March 4, 1833. Jackson did out attend out of spite, though his supporters attempted to start a riot at the event - The event (and lives) were saved by the National Guard from New York being in attendance as protection. Many men whom Clay trusted and saw responsible were appointed to his cabinet - Among them Calhoun and Webster, who had formed a Great Triumvirate with Clay. Though they did not always see eye to eye, they were united in their Anti-Jacksonian views, and they were readied when Jacksonians politically attacked them. Some members of Jackson's cabinet were brought back, like Louis McLane.
Clay quickly reversed many of Jackson's policies, but also nulled down some. In the court of law, he personally went before the Court and testified of his innocence in many accusations, mainly the Petticoat Affair; a bold move for a president, he was released of all charges. He nulled down the Indian Removal Act, giving federal funding and better management to the Native Americans, though he made no effort to bring them back to their original homes for the sake of his popularity. He also commissioned the Maysville Road, which was approved with some persuasion, making it one with the National Road System already in place. Calhoun, at this time, urged the president to revoke the Force Bill and approve of nullification - The Force Bill was revoked, and its duties were left up to Congress, but Clay took a moderate stance, and in cooperation with Calhoun, created the Tariff of 1833 and successfully getting it ratified by Congress, bringing about a moderate resolution to the Nullification Crisis. Shortly afterwards, the Second Federal Bank came to an end, and all of its funds were allocated to state banks - Biddle was deeply upset, but McLane gave him a decent position in a local treasury. For the next few years, meanwhile, Clay and his cabinet, mainly McLean, would cooperate on finding a way to appeal to the large percentage of the populace demanding hard money.
In 1835, Clay was barely able to pay off the national debt, and remains the only president to do so. That same year, Chief Justice Marshall died, and Clay appointed Associate Justice John McLean as his successor; McLean would go on to inaugurate all presidents from Harrison to Lincoln. The following year, Clay found out how to handle hard money in the best possible way. Knowing there was consequences either way, he assigned hard money to the East, keeping paper money in the West; this caused a brief economic crisis in the West, but the East flourished for the time being. By the end of his tenure, Clay's daughter Anne had died, leaving him with grandchildren. Stricken with grief and strictly believing in family first, Clay did not run for re-election. In the subsequent election, General William Harrison, Senator Hugh White, and Webster ran for president; the goal was to force a contingent election - Clay privately supported Webster, but in public, remained neutral due to Harrison's popularity. Clay ended up persuading Webster to drop out of the race and settle for vice, which Webster was deeply upset about, but recognized the truth in Clay's words. Webster went on to be chosen for Harrison's vice, with Harrison dropping the too extremist John Tyler of Virginia, rousing some Southern sentiments against Harrison (further topped when he did not choose White), but he nevertheless won against Democrat Martin Van Buren. Clay would attend the inauguration and would have one final meal with Webster before retreating back to Kentucky.
Taking A Step Back[]
Clay went on to watch Harrison's administration from the backseat; he praised Harrison's continuation of the American System, and felt pleased by how popular the Whigs were growing. In the 1839 Convention, Clay was in attendance, in which he promoted Webster to be vice again - Harrison accepted, and Webster was re-nominated on the vice ticket. Tyler and White attempted to halt these advances, but it all ended in vain with White's death in 1840. Harrison and Webster were re-elected, though over Harrison's second term, he and Clay clashed over leadership of the party, as Clay had seemingly gotten back into the jig of things. Clay soon emerged as leader, however, as Harrison fell ill and died of natural causes shortly after leaving office in 1845. The aging Clay, at the 1844 Whig Convention, was unanimously nominated as a result. The Democrats, meanwhile, nominated Tennessee governor James Polk. Clay's moderate stance on slavery alienated both Northerners and Southerners, and some Northerners favored abolitionist Gillespie Birney for the presidency. In the end, Polk, being the first dark horse candidate in history, won narrowly. Afterwards, Clay finally left political positions.
During the Mexican-American War, Clay did not initially oppose it, as he viewed it as immoral. Though, after his son Junior was killed in combat, he spoke harshly and critically against Polk, though was grateful when the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. Clay went on to oppose General Zachary Taylor in the 1848 Presidential Election, but was not heard, as Taylor won the election, also defeating Webster and General Winfield Scott for the nomination. Though, Taylor would consider Clay's compromise regarding admitting California as a free state, the cession of some Texan lands, the formation of new territories, the ban of slave importation into the capital, and stricter fugitive slave laws. It was opposed by many Northerners and Southerners, but President Taylor ratified it in 1850. That same year, Calhoun died of natural causes, and Clay went to the capital to give a eulogy; Webster did likewise.
Death of a Fighting Patriot and the Legacy[]
At the end of 1851, with his health deteriorating, Clay announced he would no longer be vocal in politics, planning his leave for September 1852; he would never get there, as he died of tuberculosis on June 29, 1852 - he was 75. At the time of his death, he was at the National Hotel in the capital, surrounded by his wife, his three remaining sons, and various grandchildren. President Zachary Taylor issued a time of mourning, and gave a speech about Clay. Clay went on to have the first actual state funeral for a president, lying in state in the Capitol Rotunda with a flag-draped coffin. Hymn writer Fanny Crosby sung this hymn at the funeral:
Sleep on, oh, statesman, sleep within thy hallowed tomb, where pearly streamlets glide, and summer roses bloom.
Clay is ranked as one of the most influential politicians as a whole: historians rank him as one of the greatest senators in American history, as well as one of the most important political figures, both in his time and beyond. Today, he is ranked between upper tier and average due to his highly principled presidency, ranked among others who were great but either forgotten or have questionable decisions like James Polk.