Italy (An Honorable Retelling)

Italian Republic Repubblica Italiana Timeline: An Honorable Retelling
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  Il Canto degli Italiani "The Song of the Italians"
Location of Italy (green)
Capital		Bologna
Largest city		Rome
Other cities		Milan, Turin, Genoa, Venice, Florence, Naples, Palermo, Cagliari
Official languages		Italian
Religion		73.1% Roman Christian 20.6% Atheism/Irreligion 6.3% other
Demonym		Italian
Government		Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Riccardo Nencini
-	Prime Minister	Nicola Fratoianni
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	Senate of the Republic
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Establishment
-	Napoleonic Italy	1805
Currency		Italian lira (ITL)
Drives on the		right

Italy (Italian: Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica Italiana), is a country in the Italian peninsula, bordered by Romandy, the Republic of the Grisons, Germany, and Cisleithania to the north, and France to the west. It consists of a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land border, as well as nearly 800 islands, notably Sicily and Sardinia. It is the fifth most populated country in Europe, with a population of 60 million as of 2023. Italy's capital is Bologna, though the largest city is Rome.

Italy's history stretches back to the various Italic peoples, most notably the ancient Romans, who dominated the Mediterranean during the Roman Republic and maintained control for centuries under the Roman Empire. As Christianity spread, Rome emerged as the center of the Catholic Church and the Papacy. From late antiquity through the Early Middle Ages, Italy saw the incursion of Germanic tribes and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Much later, the island was under Byzantine control, before facing expulsion by a Hungarian invasion in 995. By the 11th century, Italian city-states and maritime republics were thriving, fostering commerce and setting the stage for modern capitalism. The Italian Renaissance, which blossomed in the 15th and 16th centuries, extended its influence across Europe. Italian explorers opened new passages to the Far East and the New World, playing a pivotal role in the European Age of Discovery.

Initially a collection of varying states, Italy was unified under Napoleonic rule following French conquests in 1812 and reorganized into the Kingdom of Italy. The government collapsed in 1921 following the end of the Third Great War. A year later, a fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini took power, proclaiming the Italian State. During the Fourth Great War, Italy remained neutral, avoiding military conflicts due to opposition to the irredentism of the regime of Charles Maurras in France. Mussolini's government aligned itself with the Union of England, and lasted until 1974, when it collapsed following his death, culminating in a German invasion. German forces withdrew from the country in 1986, after which a GTO-supported democratic republic took power under the Constitution of 1988.

Italy is a developed country with an advanced economy, though it lags behind in European measures of manufacturing and urban development. It is a member of the Global Treaty Organization, the League to Enforce Peace, and the European Community.

Etymology

Hypotheses regarding the etymology of "Italia" are numerous and diverse. One theory suggests that the name originated from an Ancient Greek term for the land of the Italói, a tribe that inhabited the region now known as Calabria. Initially thought to be named Vituli, some scholars propose that their totemic animal was the calf (Latin: vitulus; Umbrian: vitlo; Oscan: Víteliú). Additionally, several ancient authors believed that Italy was named after a local ruler named Italus.

The ancient Greek term for Italy initially referred only to the southern part of the Bruttium peninsula, including areas such as Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia. Over time, the larger concept of Oenotria and "Italy" became synonymous, with the name eventually applying to most of Lucania. Prior to the expansion of the Roman Republic, Greeks used the name to describe the land between the Strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulfs of Salerno and Taranto, corresponding to Calabria. The Greeks later extended the use of "Italia" to a larger region. In addition to the "Greek Italy" in the south, historians have proposed the existence of an "Etruscan Italy," which included areas of central Italy.

The borders of Roman Italy, known as Italia, are more clearly defined. According to Cato's Origines, Italy encompassed the entire peninsula south of the Alps. By 264 BC, Roman Italy extended from the Arno and Rubicon rivers in the center-north to the southernmost parts. The northern area, Cisalpine Gaul, though geographically part of Italy, was occupied by Rome in the 220s BC but remained politically separate until it was legally merged into the administrative unit of Italy in 42 BC. Additionally, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and Malta were incorporated into Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, making late-ancient Italy coterminous with the modern Italian geographical region.

The term "Italicus" in Latin was used to describe "a man of Italy" as opposed to someone from a Roman province. The adjective "italianus," from which the modern term "Italian" is derived, comes from medieval Latin and was used interchangeably with "Italicus" during the early modern period. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy was established. After the Lombard invasions, the name Italia was retained for their kingdom and its successor kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire.

History

Prehistory, antiquity, and ancient Rome

Lower Paleolithic artifacts, dating back approximately 850,000 years, have been discovered at Monte Poggiolo. Excavations across Italy have revealed a Neanderthal presence during the Middle Paleolithic period, around 200,000 years ago, while evidence of modern humans appears around 40,000 years ago at Riparo Mochi. The ancient inhabitants of pre-Roman Italy were largely Indo-European, particularly the Italic peoples. Notable among the historic peoples of possible non-Indo-European or pre-Indo-European heritage are the Etruscans, the Elymians and Sicani of Sicily, and the prehistoric Sardinians, who developed the distinctive Nuragic civilization. Other ancient populations include the Rhaetian people and the Camunni, the latter known for their rock carvings in Valcamonica. A well-preserved natural mummy, Ötzi, dated to 3400–3100 BC, was found in the Similaun glacier in 1991.

The Assassination of Julius Caesar, leader of the Roman Republic

The earliest colonizers of Italy were the Phoenicians, who established trading posts on the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia, some of which grew into small urban centers, developing alongside Greek colonies. During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Greek colonies were founded at Pithecusae and spread along the southern Italian Peninsula and the coast of Sicily, an area later known as Magna Graecia. This colonization effort included settlers such as the Ionians, Doric colonists, Syracusans, and Achaeans, who established various cities. Greek colonization exposed the Italic peoples to democratic forms of government and advanced artistic and cultural expressions. This period marks a significant phase in the development of Italy, with diverse influences shaping its cultural and social landscape, setting the stage for the later unification and expansion under Roman rule.

Ancient Rome, founded in 753 BC on the banks of the Tiber River in central Italy, experienced 244 years of monarchical rule. However, in 509 BC, the Romans, favoring a system of governance that emphasized the Senate and the People (SPQR), expelled the monarchy and established an oligarchic republic. During the period of Roman expansion, the Italian Peninsula, named Italia, was unified, often through the conquest of other Italic tribes, Etruscans, Celts, and Greeks. This consolidation led to the formation of a permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities, setting the stage for Rome's conquest of Western Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Following Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Rome evolved into a vast empire that stretched from Britain to the borders of Persia, encompassing the entire Mediterranean basin. In this empire, Greek, Roman, and other cultures merged into a powerful civilization. The long reign of the first emperor, Augustus, initiated an era of peace and prosperity, with Roman Italy remaining the metropole of the empire, the homeland of the Romans, and the territory of the capital.

As Roman provinces were established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy retained a special status, being known as domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"), and during the initial centuries of imperial stability, as rectrix mundi ("governor of the world") and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands").The Roman Empire, one of the largest in history, wielded significant economic, cultural, political, and military power. At its zenith, it covered an area of 5 million square kilometers (1.9 million square miles). The legacy of Rome has profoundly influenced Western civilization, shaping the modern world. Key legacies include the widespread use of Romance languages derived from Latin, the numerical system, the modern Western alphabet and calendar, and the establishment of Christianity as a global religion.

Middle Ages

Justinian, Byzantine emperor who conquered Italy during the Gothic War of 535-537

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy fell under Odoacer's kingdom before being seized by the Ostrogoths. However, in this alternate timeline, Justinian's invasion in the 6th century was notably successful, resulting in the Byzantine Empire establishing long-lasting control over Italy. The successful campaigns of Belisarius and Narses restored much of the former Roman territories to Byzantine rule. This Byzantine dominion ushered in a period of relative stability and prosperity, known as the "Byzantine Renaissance" in Italy.

Under Byzantine rule, Italy saw significant reconstruction and revitalization of its cities. Byzantine administrative practices and cultural influences permeated the region, leading to the flourishing of art, architecture, and scholarship. The Justinian Code was implemented, standardizing legal practices and reinforcing the rule of law. Constantinople maintained strong control over Italy, fostering trade and economic growth, and integrating the peninsula more deeply into the Eastern Roman Empire. However, the Byzantine hold over Italy faced numerous challenges, including Lombard incursions and internal dissent. Despite these challenges, the Byzantines managed to retain control for several centuries through strategic fortifications, alliances, and effective governance. The Lombards, initially a significant threat, were gradually assimilated into the Byzantine administrative framework, although some regions in the north maintained a degree of autonomy.

Byzantine, Hungarian, and Hohenstaufen rule

Justinian's Code was thoroughly implemented across Italy, bringing Roman legal traditions into tandem with Byzantine administrative structures. The Exarchate of Ravenna was established as the administrative and military hub, strengthened with additional resources and autonomy, allowing it to effectively resist Lombard and Frankish incursions. The Byzantines also maintained a strong navy to secure the western Mediterranean. Byzantine rule revitalized Italian commerce, with cities like Ravenna, Naples, and Rome becoming major hubs of Mediterranean trade. Constantinople invested heavily in infrastructure, repairing aqueducts, roads, and fortifications. Italian grain, olive oil, and textiles became significant exports, and the peninsula enjoyed a cultural renaissance influenced by both Roman and Eastern traditions. Rome, still revered as the seat of the Papacy, remained a center of spiritual authority, albeit under close imperial supervision. Inevitably, the Byzantine control over the peninsula faced severe challenges.

King Conrad the Younger, from theCodex Manesse (Folio 7r), c. 1304

Conflicts in the Levant had stretched Byzantine resources thin, leaving the western provinces vulnerable. In 995, the Hungarians, having consolidated their power in the Carpathian Basin, launched a massive invasion of northern Italy. Led by Grand Prince Géza’s son, Stephen (later Saint Stephen), the Hungarians exploited weakened Byzantine defenses and political instability. The Hungarian forces rapidly overran northern Italy, capturing Ravenna and Milan. The Byzantine navy, still strong, prevented a full invasion of southern Italy, but the Exarchate collapsed. Rome fell in 998 and the Byzantine Empire abandoned its claims to Italy, focusing on defending its eastern territories. The Hungarians established a kingdom centered in Milan, blending Magyar, Italian, and Christian traditions.

Stephen I's successors converted fully to Christianity, integrating into the Latin Church and adopting many Roman traditions to legitimize their rule. Hungarian kings subsequently presided over a feudal society in northern and central Italy, granting lands to Magyar lords while allowing Italian city-states significant autonomy. Despite initial centralization, the Hungarian Kingdom of Italy struggled to maintain control over a fragmented landscape. Independent city-states like Venice, Genoa, and Florence grew in power, resisting feudal overlordship and asserting their autonomy. Attempts to reassert traditional control over Italy through the open regime in Sicily ended in 1139 following Roger II's falling out with the Church, leading his related titles to fall under competition.

By 1273, Conradin, head of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, launched a successful reconquest of Italy, decisively defeating the Hungarian rulers and their allies at the Battle of Piacenza. Conradin established a Hohenstaufen kingdom, but rather than uniting the peninsula, his rule led to the formation of competing regional states. Conradin’s policies favored decentralization, granting autonomy to powerful city-states in exchange for loyalty and military support. The cities of Milan, Venice, and Genoa thrived as independent republics, each carrying out their own independent maritime systems. Venice remained outside Hohenstaufen control, maintaining its maritime empire and ties to the Eastern Mediterranean. Florence, Siena, and Pisa likewise became key players, competing for dominance in Tuscany. Rome remained under papal control, asserting spiritual authority over the fragmented peninsula. In the south, the remnants of Byzantine and Hungarian influence gave rise to a distinct cultural identity, with Naples emerging as a dominant power under Hohenstaufen overlordship. However, by 1330, Conradin’s successors had failed to maintain a centralized kingdom. By the early 14th century, the rivalry between Venice, Florence, Milan, and the Papal States drove Italy’s political and cultural development, eventually giving rise to the Renaissance.

Renaissance

Michelangelo, a major Italian artist and sculptor during the Renaissance

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Italy served as the cradle of the Renaissance, a transformative era that marked the shift from the medieval period to the modern age. This period was catalyzed by the economic prosperity of merchant cities and the patronage of powerful families. Italian regions evolved into regional states overseen by princes who controlled trade and administration, with their courts becoming centers of artistic and scientific activity. A prominent example of such influence was the Medici family of Florence, who, along with other dynasties and merchant families, governed these princedoms. Following the end of the Western Schism, Pope Martin V was elected and reinstated the Papal States, reaffirming Italy's status as the central seat of Western Christianity. The Medici Bank became the credit institution of the Papacy, forging significant connections between the Church and the newly established political powers. The Pilgrim Crusades saw successful expeditions by Tuscany and Sicily in the New World, leading to the formation of Cosimoland as a colony. In the arts, the Italian Renaissance exercised a dominant influence on European art for centuries, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Donatello, and Titian, and architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi, Andrea Palladio, and Donato Bramante. Italian explorers and navigators from the maritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies to bypass the Ottomans, offered their services to monarchs of Atlantic countries and played a key role in ushering the Age of Discovery and the colonization of the New World. The most notable among them were Christopher Columbus, who opened the New World for European conquest, John Cabot, the first European to explore Columbia since the Norse, and Amerigo Vespucci. Following the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1450, Venice, under renewed Hungarian influence, attempted to invade Tyrol to the north, but was refuted.

Early modern period

In 1494, France invaded the Italian Peninsula, marking the beginning of the conflict known as the War of the Princes. This event drastically altered the course of the Renaissance and the political landscape of Europe. The invasion was initiated by King Charles VIII of France, who sought to claim the Kingdom of Naples as his own, driven by both dynastic claims and the desire to expand French influence. The incursion set off a series of alliances and conflicts among the various Italian states and external powers. The major Italian states, including the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Florence, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples, found themselves embroiled in the struggle. The Medici family, who had long dominated Florence, faced significant challenges as their city became a focal point in the conflict. The Papacy, under Pope Alexander VI, also played a crucial role, navigating alliances to maintain the Church's influence.

The war saw the rise of new military tactics and the extensive use of mercenaries, as Italian and French forces clashed across the peninsula. Key battles such as the Battle of Fornovo (1495) and the Siege of Naples (1495-1496) highlighted the shifting fortunes of the warring states. The French initially achieved significant successes, capturing several key cities and asserting control over large swathes of territory. However, the prolonged conflict led to economic strain and social unrest across Italy. The intricate web of alliances continually shifted, with states like Venice and Milan seeking to balance power through diplomacy and military intervention. The Bernkastel domain also became increasingly involved, seeking to curb French expansion and protect their interests. By the early 16th century, the war had evolved into a broader European conflict, drawing in England and Burgundy against France. This period saw the rise of prominent military leaders and statesmen, such as Cesare Borgia, who leveraged the chaos to further their own ambitions. The conflict also impacted the cultural landscape, as the turmoil and displacement of populations influenced artistic and intellectual pursuits.

The Siege of Naples, 1495

As the 1600s began, Europe was on the brink of another significant conflict. The death of John IV of Julich-Burgundy in 1609 without a clear heir triggered the War of the Burgundian Succession. This conflict erupted as various European powers, including the County of Ghent, France, and the Dutch Republic, vied for control over the strategic territories of the Duchy of Julich and the County of Burgundy. The War of the Burgundian Succession saw battles across the Low Countries, Germany, and northeastern France. The contest for Burgundian lands was not merely a regional struggle but was part of the larger power dynamics involving the Protestant and Catholic states. The conflict was deeply intertwined with religious conflicts in Bohemia, which had begun in 1618, further complicating the political and religious landscape of Europe.

Throughout the 1600s, the war led to significant shifts in alliances and territorial control. The Dutch Republic, seeking to assert its dominance, allied with England and other Protestant states. The Habsburgs, on the other hand, sought to maintain their influence and control over the disputed territories. The war saw the rise of notable military leaders and significant battles, such as the Siege of Aachen (1611) and the Battle of Strasbourg (1615). The extensive use of mercenaries and the impact of the war on civilian populations led to widespread devastation and economic hardship across the affected regions. The Peace of Mannheim in 1628 brought an end to the conflict, negotiated between France and the various Italian states, such as Naples and Milan, which had sought to rival it. The treaty resulted in a complex realignment of territories, with the Duchy of Julich being divided among several claimants and the County of Burgundy being integrated into French territory. The Bernkastel domain collapsed, as the war had marked a decline in their dominance, paving the way for the rise of other European powers.

Enlightenment and Napoleonic era

Napoleon I, Emperor of the French from 1803 to 1829; Napoleon's France launched a conquest of Italy, culminating in its unification

The beginning of the 18th century marked the emergence of the War of the Brutes (1710-1714), sparked by a succession crisis in Iberia following a dispute between Miguel III and Elisabeth Farnese, each adhering to a different succession law. The war saw multiple European powers vying for influence over the thrones of Castile and Portugal, with France, Hungary, England, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic all playing significant roles. The conflict was characterized by brutal battles, shifting alliances, and widespread devastation across the Iberian Peninsula. The War of the Brutes culminated in the Treaty of Groningen in 1714, which established Farnese as the monarch of Portugal, with Miguel inheriting Castile. but imposed significant territorial concessions to the other European powers. This treaty reshaped the balance of power in Europe and set the stage for a period of relative peace and stability.

Following the war, Europe entered the Enlightenment, a period of intellectual and philosophical advancement that spanned the 18th century. Thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu challenged established norms and advocated for reason, science, and individual rights. The Enlightenment had a profound impact on political thought, leading to reforms and the eventual spread of revolutionary ideas. The late 18th century saw the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, driven by Enlightenment ideals and social discontent. The revolution dramatically altered the political landscape of France and inspired revolutionary movements across Europe. Amidst the chaos, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power, first as a military leader and then as Emperor of the French.

Napoleon's ambitions soon led to a series of conflicts known as the Second Great War, which saw his armies sweeping across Europe. In 1805, Napoleon launched a major campaign against Hungary, Lublin, Russia, and the Dutch Republic. The decisive campaign across the Rhine, also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, cemented Napoleon's dominance and led to the formation of a Napoleonic puppet in Germany. Having already supported revolutionary movements in Italy, Napoleon laid waste to both the various states and the Hungarian dominance of Venetia to the north.

Third Great War, fascist era, and Cold War

The Kingdom of Italy encompassed much of northern Italy, including Lombardy, Venetia, the Papal Legations, and Tuscany. Its capital was established in Milan. Napoleon installed his stepson, Eugène de Beauharnais, as King of Italy, ensuring that the region remained loyal to French interests while fostering a distinct Italian identity rooted in Enlightenment ideals. The Napoleonic administration introduced sweeping reforms to modernize Italy: the feudal system was abolished, and Italy was divided into départements modeled after the French system, creating a centralized bureaucracy. The Napoleonic Code was implemented, guaranteeing civil equality, secular courts, and property rights. Infrastructure projects, such as canals and roads, were prioritized, integrating Italy into the French Empire's economic network. Milan became a center of Enlightenment thought, with state-sponsored universities and academies fostering a new Italian intelligentsia.

Masonic logo of the Carbonari, an informal network of secret revolutionary societies active in Italy from about 1800 to 1881

Following Napoleon's death in 1829, the French Empire was inherited by his son, Napoleon II, who ruled effectively as Emperor of Europe. Under the reign of Eugène de Beauharnais and later his son Auguste, the Kingdom of Italy became a critical pillar of the French imperial system. However, Napoleonic Italy saw the emergence of a nationalist movement distinct from its French overlords. Italian intellectuals and the bourgeoisie embraced the ideals of liberty and equality, but they also began to envision a united, independent Italian state. By the 1830s, secret societies like the Carbonari, though suppressed by the French authorities, fueled a burgeoning sense of Italian identity. Napoleon III’s reign marked a more liberal phase in the empire, allowing greater autonomy for the Kingdom of Italy. In the 1850s, King Auguste initiated the Second Renaissance, a period of industrialization and cultural flourishing, with Milan, Turin, and Venice becoming centers of manufacturing, rivaling cities in France and Germany. A trans-Alpine railway linked Italy to France and Germany, while Venice emerged as a major trading hub with the Hungarian Empire and the Levant. Italian was standardized as the official language, replacing regional dialects, fostering a unified cultural identity. By the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Italy was no longer a mere French satellite but an emerging power in its own right. Its industrial base allowed it to pursue colonial ambitions under French auspices. Small-scale Italian expeditions in North Africa, particularly in Libya and Somalia, marked the start of a modest Italian empire. Despite its successes, tensions grew between the Kingdom and France. Italian elites began to resent their subordinate position within the Napoleonic system, particularly as French dominance stifled aspirations for greater autonomy.

Italian soldiers on the beaches in Bari, 1917

The early 20th century brought significant challenges to the Kingdom of Italy. While the north prospered, southern Italy remained impoverished, fueling unrest. Socialist and nationalist parties gained traction, advocating either for social reform or full independence from France. King Philippe I, reigning since 1895, initiated a massive rearmament program, aligning Italy’s military with the standards of European powers. During the Third Great War, the Kingdom of Italy played a pivotal role, serving as the main front against Rhomania. Italy’s rugged coastlines in the south became a brutal theater of war. The Italian army, well-equipped but poorly led, suffered heavy casualties in battles like the Siege of Taranto (1916) and the Second Battle of Ginosa (1917). Within years, strikes and riots broke out in Milan and Naples, while socialist factions called for an end to the "imperialist war." The war ended disastrously for the French Empire, which collapsed to an Allied coalition. The Treaty of Amsterdam (1921) dismantled the French Empire, leading to the dissolution of the Kingdom of Italy. Key factors in the collapse included economic devastation, as the war bankrupted Italy, crippling its economy and sparking hyperinflation. Competing factions—monarchists, republicans, socialists, and nationalists—vied for control in the postwar vacuum. By 1921, radical nationalist groups, inspired by the collapse of the Napoleonic system, gained power. Benito Mussolini emerged as a charismatic leader, advocating for a new Italian state free of foreign domination.

Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1974

Under the concept of totalitarianism, Benito Mussolini and the Fascist regime pursued an agenda to reshape Italian culture and society, drawing inspiration from ancient Rome, personal dictatorship, and the futuristic ideas of Italian intellectuals and artists. The Fascist vision of Italian nationality was grounded in militarism and the "new man" ideal, expecting loyal Italians to abandon individualism and autonomy, viewing themselves as integral to the state and ready to die for it. In this regime, only those aligned with fascism were deemed "true Italians," with membership in the Fascist Party a prerequisite for "Complete Citizenship." Non-adherents were excluded from public life and employment. The government also sought to engage the Italian diaspora in supporting Fascism and identifying with Italy over their countries of residence. However, Fascist Italy's cultural transformation efforts were less extreme and less successful than those in other single-party states like the Sovereign States and the Union of England.

Mussolini's propaganda portrayed him as the nation's savior, and the Fascist regime sought to make his presence felt throughout Italian society. The allure of Fascism in Italy largely stemmed from Mussolini's charismatic appeal. His fervent speeches and the cult of personality surrounding him were showcased in massive rallies and marches of his Blackshirts in Rome, which also inspired Oswald Mosley in England. The Fascist regime utilized propaganda through newsreels, radio broadcasts, and select feature films that overtly supported Fascism. In 1926, legislation mandated the showing of propaganda newsreels before all feature films in movie theaters. These newsreels had a greater impact on the populace than propaganda films or radio broadcasts, as radio ownership was not widespread in Italy at that time. Propaganda was also prevalent in posters and government-endorsed art. While artists, writers, and publishers experienced some degree of freedom, they faced censorship only when they overtly opposed the state. The regime consistently highlighted the masculinity of the "new Italian," emphasizing aggression, virility, youth, speed, and sports. Women were encouraged to focus on motherhood and refrain from engaging in public life.

The Fourth Great War saw Italy retain neutrality, due to Mussolini's reservations against going to war with other nations following the partisan violence during the 1920s. French rule had jeopardized attitudes towards Maurras and his regime, and Italians generally opposed his efforts to establish a reconquest of all former French territories, which included Italy. Despite this, Allied bombing raids from the south hit various targets in Italy, which led to diplomatic protests. During the war, Mussolini allied with Oswald Mosley, establishing formal relations between the Union of England and fascist Italy. After the collapse of fascist France, the two nations declined to recognize the legitimacy of the new government, as well as the various puppet states created by Germany following the war. This set the stage for the Cold War, in which the GTO, Frankfurt Pact, and FASCON competed for global control. While retaining its embargo policies, Italy formally established diplomatic relations with Germany and Russia in the 1950s.

Death of Mussolini, German invasion, and modern era

The death of Benito Mussolini in 1974 brought an end to the fascist regime. His successor, Galeazzo Ciano, failed to stabilise the country and was met with popular opposition. With Italy lacking nuclear capabilities, Germany launched an invasion through the north, provoking a retaliatory response by the GTO. The Union of England protested this effort, but was powerless to prevent it. German occupational forces established the Italian Social Republic to the north, which was intended to safeguard their interests. The new government established Enrico Berlinguer as its prime minister. However, their attempts to seize Venice stalled, due to both poor equipment performance and rugged terrain. Sweden, an ally of Germany, declined to support Berlin's actions, decrying them as imperialist and unnecessary. A ceasefire was temporarily brokered in 1982 by Novanglian Prime Minister Doug Anthony, but conflicts quickly resumed due to various partisan militias declining to end the fight against Germany. In 1986, facing economic strain and diplomatic pressure, Germany withdrew, and the GTO lobbied for the establishment of a democratic republic in Italy.

The first presidential election in Italy was held on December 4, 1987, with Amintore Fanfani being elected by a wide margin. An ideological centrist, Fanfani sponsored state welfare programs and implemented regulations, in a style akin to that of the Tsongas and McCartney administrations in the United States and Novanglia, respectively. Between 1992 and 1993, Italy was rocked by terror attacks carried out by the Sicilian Mafia in response to the government's new anti-mafia legislation. Disillusioned voters, frustrated with political stagnation, burgeoning public debt, and rampant corruption exposed by the Clean Hands investigation, called for sweeping reforms. The Christian Democrats, who had been in power for nearly half a century, faced a severe crisis and eventually disbanded, breaking into different factions. The Communists rebranded themselves as a social-democratic entity. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, governance alternated between centre-right coalitions, led by media tycoon Silvio Berlusconi, and centre-left coalitions, headed by Professor Romano Prodi. In the modern era, Italy has taken a role in global peacekeeping and environmental missions, notably leading sanctions against Arabia due to its oil production.

Geography

Italy's territory largely overlaps with the geographical region of the same name and is situated in Southern Europe, also considered a part of Western Europe, between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. It encompasses the entire Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia—the largest islands in the Mediterranean—and numerous smaller islands. Some of Italy's land extends beyond the Alpine basin, with certain islands lying outside the Eurasian continental shelf. The country is over 35% mountainous. The Apennine Mountains constitute the peninsula's spine, while the Alps form most of its northern boundary, with Italy's highest peak at Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco) summit, reaching 4,810 meters (15,780 feet). Other notable mountains include the Matterhorn (Monte Cervino) in the western Alps and the Dolomites in the eastern Alps.

Much of Italy has a volcanic origin, with many southern small islands and archipelagos being volcanic. Active volcanoes include Mount Etna in Sicily, the largest in Europe, along with Vulcano, Stromboli, and Vesuvius. Most Italian rivers empty into the Adriatic or Tyrrhenian Seas. The Po, the longest river, originates in the Alps on the western border and traverses the Padan plain to the Adriatic. The Po Valley is the most extensive plain, covering 46,000 km² (18,000 sq mi) and comprising over 70% of the nation's lowlands. The largest lakes in descending order of size are Garda (367.94 km² or 142 sq mi), Maggiore (212.51 km² or 82 sq mi), and Como (145.9 km² or 56 sq mi).

Politics

Italy's government is a semi-presidential system with a mixed proportional and majoritarian voting system. The parliament is bicameral, with both houses holding equal powers. The Chamber of Deputies convenes in Palazzo Montecitorio, while the Senate of the Republic meets in Palazzo Madama. A unique feature of the Italian Parliament is the representation of Italian citizens living abroad, with 8 Deputies and 4 Senators elected from four overseas constituencies. Additionally, there are life senators appointed by the president for exceptional patriotic contributions in various fields, and former presidents serve as life senators ex officio.

The Prime Minister of Italy, as head of government, wields executive authority but requires the Council of Ministers' approval to implement most policies. Appointed by the president and confirmed by parliament through a confidence vote, the prime minister must maintain confidence votes to stay in office. Unlike other parliamentary systems, the prime minister cannot dissolve parliament and holds exclusive responsibility for intelligence, including policy coordination, financial allocation, cybersecurity enhancement, state secret protection, and overseas operational authorization.

The main political parties include the Brothers of Italy, Democratic Party, and Five Star Movement. In the 2022 general election, these parties and their coalitions secured 357 out of 400 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 187 out of 200 in the Senate. The centre-right coalition, comprising Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy, Matteo Salvini's League, Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia, and Maurizio Lupi's Us Moderates, achieved a majority in parliament.