John Charles Fremont (January 21, 1813 – July 13, 1890) was an American explorer, military officer, and politician who served as the fourteenth president of the United States from 1857 to 1861. He was a United States senator from California and was the first Republican president of the U.S. in 1856 and a founder of the Republican Party.
Early Life[]
John Charles Fremont was born on January 21, 1813, in the city of Savannah, Georgia; he was the oldest child of French-Canadian immigrant teacher Charles Fremont and his lover, Anne Whiting. The young Fremont was born out of wedlock, as his mother had fallen in love with his father while she was married to General John Pryor, and though the officer filed for divorce, it was turned down, forcing them to never marry. While Charles opened a boarding school at their plantation in Savannah, the house slave, Hannah, took care of the boy.
In 1818, Charles died, leaving Anne a single window with multiple children; as a result, Anne moved her children to Charleston, South Carolina. As Fremont grew, he was known for being proud, reserved, selfless, and self-disciplined, but determined to prove his worth given the opportunity. When Fremont entered Charleston College, local lawyer John Mitchell taught him law, personally tutoring him in between classes. Though Fremont was expelled for his irregular attendance, he excelled in math and science. This feat attracted the attention of politician Joel Poinsett, ambassador to Mexico, secured a position for the young man as a math teacher to the naval officers aboard the USS Natchez, though he later resigned and joined the Topographical Corps, mapping out a route for the Cincinnati Railroad - this is where he gained a love for exploration. After gaining more appointments throughout the East, he became a top rate topographer - Among the other explorers he met were Henry Sibley and Joe Renville, as well as the Sioux nation.
His explorations brought him into contact with general and politician Thomas Benton, also known as Old Bullion, an enemy of president Andrew Jackson. After Fremont was invited to the general's home, he met his teenage daughter Jessie and became romantically involved with her, soon being married to her by a priest. Benton was initially infuriated at the marriage, believing Fremont was too lower class for his daughter - though, due to his love for his daughter, he eventually consented to accepting their marriage, and through these connections, Fremont found himself in charge of expeditions across the Oregon Trail to the Great Basin and the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Over the next two decades, the Fremonts had five children, though only three survived to adulthood (one daughter and two sons).
The Pioneering Man[]
In 1842, French explorer Joseph Nicollet fell ill, further deteriorated by his age. Fremont, being his protege, became his successor. Arranged by Senator Lewis Linn, Fremont was placed in charge of an expedition to acquire Oregon Territory by President William Harrison; their mission was to explore the region, examine the terrain, and gauge the fertility of the lands. Fremont had the privilege of having expeditioner Kit Carson as his guide. With his band of men, and Jessie at his side, Fremont traversed the Kansas River, moving into Nebraska and following the Platte River; from there, the band moved into Wyoming via the Green River. In Wyoming, Fremont climbed a mountain over twelve thousand feet and planted a flag on it - today, it is known as Fremont Peak; the Rockies and the West were claimed for America. By October, the group had returned to the capital, though loosing some supplies on the Platte. Fremont and Jessie would go on to co-author a book about their travels, having it printed nationally, showing the Western frontier was not hostile but open to settlement.
Just months after the book was published, Fremont was commissioned for exploration again, this time to explore and document the second half of the Oregon Trail from Wyoming to Oregon; this time, he had more men and a better sense of responsibility, with Carson accompanying him yet again. After obtaining a cannon in Missouri, they traveled onto the trail by the Arkansas River. The band moved north, meeting up with missionary Marcus Whitman in Idaho, before, thanks to Fremont's endurance, traveling all the way to the Cascade Range. They were able to map Mount Saint Helens. Upon their arrival, Fremont briefly departed from the party and gathered supplies from Vancouver. However, this was not the end of their endeavors - the determined Fremont, hellbent on keeping Benton's dream, moved to the Great Basin, naming Pyramid Lake as getting as far as modern day Douglas County, Nevada. Fremont's expedition made them among the first Americans to visit Lake Tahoe, before entering California and visiting Captain John Sutter at Sutter's Fort. Here, Fremont found the American population growing, and that Mexican authority was weak in the region. From there, they moved south through the Central Valley before traversing the Old Spanish Trail through modern day Las Vegas, mapping out the topography of the Great Basin before heading to Colorado. By 1844, they had trekked through St. Louis once more before returning to Washington, where Fremont and Jessie published yet another book, deeming the land safe for settlement - Then-senator James Buchanan ordered mass amounts of copies to be printed throughout the nation.
In 1845, Democratic Speaker James K. Polk was elected president. Benton organized their third expedition, this time mainly exploring Colorado, Utah, and the Sierras. Carson came along once again as a guide, and two scouts, Rutherford Walker and Alex Godey, were brought along as well. Fremont was told secretly at a cabinet meeting by President Polk and Secretary of the Navy, George Bancroft, that he was to turn his expeditionary force into a military force if war breaks out with the Mexican Empire, which was Polk's goal, as he wished to conquer California, and so did Fremont, swayed by its natural beauty and wealth.
Fremont split off his force in the Rockies, arriving at Sutter's Fort once more later on. Once there, he stirred up patriotic feelings among the Americans there, telling them of the war plan. The division then moved to Monterrey, gaining supplies from American consul Oliver Larkin and Mexican commander Antonio Castro. Both parties reunited at the modern day city of Fremont, and Castro and Mexican authorities became suspicious of Fremont and ordered him to leave, but they refused, camping at Gabilan Peak and planting an American flag in defiance. After a week of standoff, Fremont and his men fled, committing the Sacramento River massacre, which was a mass killing of Native Americans due to Fremont being misled into thinking they were being aggressive to American settlers, on the way north. They eventually arrived at Klamath Lake in Oregon, where Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie overtook them and told Fremont that war with Mexico was imminent and he still had jurisdiction for combat. Shortly after, Native Americans retaliated for the killings in California by attacking the party, murdering three members in their sleep, including a Native American traveling with Fremont. In response, the Klamath Lake massacre occurred, in which Fremont destroyed a Native village on the lakeside coast, blaming the British. During the fighting, Carson was nearly killed by a warrior, but Fremont saved him by trampling the warrior with his horse in time, leaving an eternally grateful Carson - they returned to California as a result.
The American of California[]
Upon their return to California, the group met ranchero Peter Lassen at his ranch. Fremont learned from Lassen that naval commander John Montgomery was docked at the California ports. With an idea in mind, he sent Gillespie to Montgomery, requesting ammunition, arms, and supplies, which were granted. From there, he moved north, camping outside Sutter's Fort, with rebellious Americans joining his party, before joining up with the Sacramento Valley insurgents, a group of rebellious armed Americans, massacring more Natives at the Sutter Buttes massacre; the armed patriots moved on Sonoma, laying siege and capturing it, taking Mexican general Mariano Vallejo hostage, before declaring the short lived Bear Flag Republic amidst heavy drinking and a roughly sewn flag, making pioneer William Ide their first and only leader. Fremont had the prisoners handed over to Sutter, and became the self-proclaimed commanding general of California. Later, upon hearing some civilians had been killed by Mexican soldiers, Fremont and his band rode out to find them, to no avail. Carson meanwhile led a detachment to San Rafael, where they captured Mexican general Jose Berrelleza and the twin sons of General Francisco de Haro, Ramon and Junior, executing all three in cold blood, speculated to be on Fremont's orders.
Shortly after, American naval commander Drake Sloat landed in Monterrey, with orders from Washington to blockade all Californian ports. Upon learning of Fremont and his actions, Sloat assumed it was on federal orders and sent ships to seize the surrounding coast, raising the American flag at Monterrey without any shots fired. Sloat issued a proclamation in English and Spanish declaring that California was American, and when Fremont was alerted of this, Sloat ordered him to go to Monterrey with hundreds of troops. When the general arrived, naval commander Robert Stockton arrived to replace the aging Sloat. Fremont retired to his cabin home upon learning Sloat had found out the truth about his actions, though Stockton recalled him into service, putting him practically second-in-command to him. Fremont ventured south by ship and captured San Diego, before moving north to capture Los Angeles and recruit more troops. Afterwards, Stockton sent Fremont to capture Santa Barbara, to which he tackled with success; unfortunately for the Americans, Mexicans rose up in revolt in Los Angeles and, under General Jose Flores, recaptured it.
By the end of 1846, American general Stephen Kearny arrived in California, on orders from President Polk to establish order, concurrent with Carson's journey to Washington to notify the government of Stockton and Fremont's seizure of the region. However, what Kearny did not known was that California's Mexican population was in revolt, and faced a crushing defeat at the Battle of San Pasqual by Mexican governor Pio Pico, but was later saved by Stockton. During this time, Stockton and Fremont argued over who had control of the military, but they soon came back to their senses and reconquered Santa Barbara and Los Angeles from the rebels, despite losing many horses and cannons. The Treaty of Cahuenga was signed between Fremont and the last Mexican general in California to surrender, ending the war in California. Kearny ordered Fremont to join his ranks, but was turned down, with the latter being loyal to Stockton. Stockton rewarded Fremont with the office of being the third military governor of California. Prior to his governorship, Sloat had been given orders by the impatient president to establish order over California, but these postdated Kearny's orders; for this reason, when the highest general in the entire U.S. military, Winfield Scott, ordered Kearny's ascension to the post, Kearny ordered for Fremont and his troops to follow him and meet him at his temporary capital in Monterrey, causing Fremont to once again disobey and hope for deterring orders from the capital stating his position as governor, though Fremont did eventually give in and go to Monterrey, but ordered his soldiers not to disband their arms. Kearny sent his second-in-command, Richard Mason, to meet with Kearny in Los Angeles, where the two men bickered with each other, and arranged for a duel, though it was postponed. During the interval, Kearny arrived himself, forcing Fremont to march with his army back east, where he was arrested midway in Kansas. In Washington, he was found guilty of mutiny against his superiors and punished with dishonorable discharge, though the president intervened and commuted his sentence, reinstating him, and Fremont remained popular with the public.
Determined to continue Manifest Destiny, Fremont, along with Benton, secured private funding for another expedition; Carson was not with Fremont on this time, deeply affecting Fremont, though the artist Edward Kern accompanied him. They traversed the Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas Rivers before making it to Bent's Fort, Colorado. Here, the guide Dick Wootton was hired, followed by secondary guide Bill Williams at Pueblo. They continued until Florence, before making a sharp turn south and moving south through the region into New Mexico territory. By this point, horses were dying, their progress became slowed, with Wootton and several other members turning back, while Kern's brother and Williams were killed by Native American warriors. By Christmas, Fremont realized the direness of the situation and brought the group to Taos, where they recuperated - they had eaten their ten fallen members to feed themselves. Fremont and a few others continued to California, where Fremont oversaw his ranch, Rancho Las Mariposas, a gold mine that made him rich and once belonged to the former Mexican governor of California Juan Alvarado, while he lived at his luxurious estate in Monterrey, causing animosity and jealousy from neighbors.
In 1849, General C. Riley, without federal approval, called for a state election to ratify the state constitution. When the legislature voted for their two first senators, and Fremont was elected with a large support base. In the capital, Washington voted in favor of laws favoring foreigners and the abolition of slavery. Democrats soon took over the California Senate, in attempts to push for pro-slavery, among the politicians being John Weller, who became the fifth governor of California seven years later. Disappointed but far from disheartened, in 1853, Fremont led his final expedition, mapping out a route for the future Transcontinental Railroad, accompanied by his photographer, Solomon Carvalho. They followed the Santa Fe Trail from Missouri to Colorado before crossing the Continental Divide and diverting onto the Old Spanish Trail, finding evidence of Captain John Gunnison's expedition in their wake. The bitter cold and heavy snow slowed their progress, but they stayed at Parowan, Utah, with the Mormons before continuing onto Big Pine, California, and into the San Joaquin Valley. In the spring of 1854, Fremont arrived at San Francisco, and felt confident that the railroad could be built along the 38th Parallel, relaying this information to the recently elected president, General Scott, who rewarded him for his efforts in Washington.
The Mountaineer President[]
When the 1856 Presidential Election was coming up, Virginia governor Buchanan Floyd and the powerful Preston family offered Fremont the Democratic nomination, being a former Democrat in California, but it failed; Republican leaders Prentice Banks, Henry Wilson, and John Bigelow convinced him to accept their nomination. Seeking to unite the party, Fremont won the nomination alongside New Jersey Senator William Dayton, while the Democrats nominated Secretary James Buchanan. Jessie happened to know more than her husband on politics, and acted as a guiding light for his campaign alongside Bigelow, with the Republicans praising her efforts - she shortly after had several private meetings with her father that convinced him to back his son-in-law. Fremont, meanwhile, stayed at the family home in New York City, while both parties went back and forth with smear campaigning, with many rallies held on the front lawn. In the end, despite limited campaign funds, Fremont defeated Buchanan by small margins. In jubilation, Fremont, Dayton and their supporters marched to the Capitol Rotunda once he and Jessie had traveled by train to Washington; here, on March 4, 1857, Chief Justice John McLean inaugurated Fremont and Dayton, in the presence of outgoing President Scott, who gave his congratulatory remarks in private to both men and other politicians before leaving quietly.
Fremont distrusted the Democrats like many other Republicans, only trusting a select few - hence, most of his cabinet was Republican. Only a few days into his term, the first major judicial case came up - A Missouri slave named Dred Scott sued for his freedom, arguing he was being held in bondage unjustly. It was debated greatly in the Supreme Court, but in the end, through convincing from Fremont, Scott was freed on the condition he moved to Illinois, which is where he began a new life with his family. This outraged the pro-slavery justices and politicians, mainly Democrats, but Fremont upheld his case, stating Illinois was a free state and he could not be free in Missouri due to its moderate position, something defended by Republicans and anti-slavery activists.
Early in his tenure, a war almost broke out in Utah; it had nearly been perpetrated by Governor Brigham Young, leader of the Mormons - he became increasingly hostile to outsiders, harassing non-Mormons. In the Mountain Meadows massacre, the territorial militia attacked a wagon train and killed over a hundred settlers - it certainly did not help their case that they advocated and actively practiced polygamy. A federal notice was sent to Young from the president, in which Fremont ordered Young to come to Washington, where he would be escorted by General Thomas Kane to the capital for talks - Young reluctantly agreed, and Kane escorted him and his entourage to Washington, where a trial was held for Young, in which Fremont agreed to assist his acquittal if he agreed to step down from politics for good - Young conceded, and he was acquitted of all charges and sent back to Utah unharmed.
In late 1857, pro-slavery activists in Kansas attempted to have the Lecompton Constitution, which was pro-slavery and overturned the anti-slavery Topeka Constitution, ratified by Congress - Fremont's influence assisted in turning it down, not to mention former Vice President Stephen Douglas of the Democrats turned the Northern Democrats on their Southern brethren in the party, opposing the attempted constitution. The proposal was vetoed, and pro-slavery violence against their opponents increased in the territory - Fremont and Dayton authorized mobilization of the territorial militia, and the next few months were bloody and brutal. By early 1858, the violence had died down, and Kansas's statehood was ratified. That same year, Douglas had his famous political debates with Republican politician Abraham Lincoln for the senatorial seat in Illinois - though the president supported Lincoln, Douglas won the seat; in fact, the Democrats held the Senate, but their division caused the Republicans to gain the House, and this backing caused Fremont to successfully push for the passing of the Homestead Act and the Morrill Act, which granted land for settlers and universities.
In the terms of foreign affairs, Fremont first negotiated with the British some less severe terms regarding the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, cutting down European colonialism and easing tensions over Central America. Shortly after, when Paraguay fired upon the USS Water Witch, Fremont sent a delegation to the country demanding the payment of an indemnity so that peace would be ensured for them, which was agreed upon. The chiefs of the island nations of Raiatea and Tahaa attempted to persuade Fremont to allow them to become American protectorates, but the president declined, seeing it as too costly. Alaska, the American territory of the Russian Empire, was considered for purchase, but turned down due to mass migrations by Mormons into the imperial territories and lack of proper communication. That same year, the first official telegram was sent between Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Fremont - Victoria's message was 90+ words, while Fremont's was 60+.
This was the state Fremont left behind when he left office: When the 1860 Republican National Convention arrived, Fremont announced he was not running for re-election, something already addressed by him to the public prior. After several ballots, Lincoln was chosen as the Republican nominee. On the flip side, the Democratic National Convention nominated Buchanan's vice presidential candidate John Breckinridge as their man. In a tight election, Lincoln carried, his support in the North being enough to take him to the White House. Former president Scott, the commanding general, warned Fremont that Lincoln's election would cause secession, and recommended he sent militias down to keep them in check - Fremont did that as his final act in office, though when the Civil War broke out, many were killed or imprisoned, while others escaped back to Union borders. In Fremont's final speech to Congress, he explained the states had no right to secede, and told the government they had the right to take any action to stop their progress. South Carolina, the most radical Southern state, seceded, followed by several others in 1861, but to Fremont's credit, the states of Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas were added to the Union as free states. Upon Lincoln's arrival in the capital, Fremont accompanied him, staying in the capital until Lincoln's inauguration on March 1, 1861, attended by both the incoming and outgoing presidential families, as well as the family of outgoing vice president Dayton and incoming vice president Hannibal Hamlin and his family. It was the last inauguration conducted by Chief Justice John McLean, as he would die a month later of natural causes - a few weeks after his death, the Civil War began with the Battle of Fort Sumter in South Carolina.
Radical Unionist[]
Fremont was among three ex-presidents to serve in the Civil War, alongside former presidents Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, with all four living presidents meeting in mid 1861 just two weeks before Taylor's death. At this meeting, Fremont was placed in charge of the Department of the West, making him the man everyone in the West would take orders from. Fremont and his subordinate, General John Pope, were moved to Illinois to protect it at all costs in order for the Union to advance South. Though, Fremont soon found himself in a political feud with General Frank Blair, who accused Fremont of corruption, and it was found true by the government - Fremont was viewed as an autocratic general, profiting off of giving land to his greatest political and military supporters in the area and renting out a lavish mansion - mass scrutiny came towards him for this reason. During this time, General Nathaniel Lyon led an attack into Missouri, exiling Governor Claiborne Jackson, a secessionist, and he was officially ousted from power by the legislation. Missouri was officially legalized as a free state by Lyon, though Lyon soon found himself trapped by Confederate general Sterling Price. Being advised to do so, Fremont rushed South, hastily organizing his forces as he was on the move. At the Battle of Wilson's Creek, through the chaos, Price was shot and died instantly. The Trans-Mississippi theater was henceforth in the Union's hands.
Following the victory, Fremont gained more volunteers at the urging of his wife to President Lincoln, and overall took the war more seriously. With Price's remaining forces in retreat, Fremont decided to make a move - send forces to secure the Mississippi. Initially trusting Pope, he changed his choice to General Ulysses S. Grant, entrusting him with securing the river valley and defeating Confederate general Leonidas Polk, cousin to President Polk. Grant moved South to meet Polk's forces, and though Polk had already departed, Grant captured Paducah, Kentucky, without firing a single shot. Shortly after Grant's seizure of the city, Kentucky's legislation ratified its position as a free state.
Not much time elapsed before Fremont issued a martial order to Missouri, stating all Confederates were to be hanged or executed, all slaves freed, and any secessionist supporter was to have their property confiscated. As this began to create a domino effect to the other states, Lincoln told Fremont to rescind his proclamation, to which Fremont refused, causing tensions between the two men. Jessie appealed to Lincoln for her husband, and Lincoln voiced his fear that the Union cause was going to be endangered, and decided Fremont had to go, removing him from his position. Though, radical Republicans were slightly infuriated and demanded his return, and the slaves he freed formed radical Unionist groups to fight the Confederates due to Lincoln not let letting African Americans into war service. Fremont was placed in the Mountain Department, where the Appalachian region laid. In Summer 1862, in this position, Fremont clashed with Confederate General Stonewall Jackson and his second-in-command, Richard Ewell. In the ensuing battles, at the Battle of Port Republic, Jackson was attacked in a major assault by Fremont - Jackson was injured and escaped, despite heavy casualties on both sides; however, Ewell escaped as well, and went up to link with Robert E. Lee in Virginia. This brought much criticism to Fremont. In 1863, following the Emancipation Proclamation, ten thousand African American men formed the Fremont Legion, a army division led by Fremont. After its ratification after much talks, Fremont defeated several other generals throughout the war, though the biggest victories are attributed to Grant, Banks, and General and politician Brinton McClellan. After the war's end, in 1864, Fremont was nominated as the radical choice for the presidency, seeking re-election, but lost the nomination to Lincoln. Following that, he slipped back into his aristocratic lifestyle, staying in Sleepy Hollow, New York while keeping in touch with political and military leaders like Scott and Grant.
From 1866 - 1867, Fremont was made manager of the Pacific Railroad, reorganizing its assets before it was re-acquired by Missouri. Under President Samuel Tilden, he was made governor of Arizona Territory, though spent little time there, and ultimately resigned. He was added to a list of retired army officers that enabled him to qualify for a pension.
The Pathfinder's Path Home[]
In Summer 1890, Fremont experienced severe temperature changes. After battling with it for days, on July 13, 1890, Fremont lost his battle, dying of natural causes at 77 with his family by his side; he is remembered to history as the Pathfinder. He lied in state at the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, attended by incumbent president Benjamin Harrison, grandson of President William Harrison, and many prominent politicians, both old and new. He was initially interred at Trinity Cemetery in Manhattan before being moved to Rockland Cemetery at Sparkill, New York. The pension he applied for went to his widow, Jessie.
Although Fremont was often caught up in controversy, he played a major role in opening up the American West to settlement by American pioneers, in part by attacks on Native Americans, to which he is remembered controversially. His reliable accounts, including published maps, narrations, and scientific documentations of his expeditions, guided American emigrants overland into the West. He is often ranked in average for his moderate actions as president that sometimes led to more chaos, something that defined his entire life.