Empire of Rhomania Αυτοκρατορία Ρωμαίων
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Motto: Αιώνιο είναι το κράτος του Χριστού! "Eternal is the state of Christ" | |||||||||||||||||
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| Capital | Nauplio (1770-1802) Trikala (until 1797) Athens (1802-1877) Constantinople (current) | ||||||||||||||||
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| Religion | Christianity
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| Demonym(s) | Rhoman Rumlar(Turkish) | ||||||||||||||||
| Government | Absolute Monarchy (1811-1843) Semi-Constitutional Parliamentary Monarchy (1843-1943) | ||||||||||||||||
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| Legislature | Senate | ||||||||||||||||
• Upper house |
Supreme Parliament | ||||||||||||||||
• Lower house |
General Assembly | ||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||
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Introduction[]
Today, the Empire of Rhomania, also known as the Empire of the Romans, the Roman Empire or just Rhomania (Greek for land of the Romans), is a tried and tested nation, having faced many challenges from its conception as a small Greece, all the way to its 'rebirth' as Rome.Today it borders multiple countries, including Serbia and Bulgaria in the Balkans.Syria, Kurdistan, Assyria in the south, Armenia, Persia and Georgia to its east, shares a maritime border with Dalmatia, and a border with Crimea through the leased port of Feodosia.It has a population of 112,980,000, and is a CIS and EU observer state.
The Greek War of Independence[]
Beginning in the year 1728 AD, a decade after the Turkish seizure of the Venetian Morea and Crete, rebellions ignited all over the Mani peninsula. These revolts saw little success and were often crushed by the Ottoman military, but they would set the stage for the future foundation of future Rhomaic, and subsequently Hellenic revolutionary activity. As the years passed, the Ottoman empire suffered defeat after defeat at the hands of the major European powers. The Greeks watched as the chains of their oppressors were finally loosening. With the Sublime Port loosing chunks of territory to the British and Russians, many Greeks were beginning to plot for the restoration of their once mighty civilisation, and their comeback onto the world stage.
flag of the first revolutionary organization
Large scale uprisings begun in the Morea and the Aegean Islands between 1730-1731. The fires of rebellion were first lit in Mani, Arcadia, Psara, Chios and in the outskirts of Attica. A disastrous drought only further helped solidify the cause of the revolutionaries, as the struggling Ottoman bureaucracy failed to respond. The revolutionaries would overtake most of the South and Eastern Morea, with much success under the leadership of the klephts Konstantinos Kolokotronis and Panagiotaros Venetzianakis, who decisively defeated Ottoman and Muslim Albanian regiments in the Battle of Nauplio, and in the Sieges of Kastania, Methoni and Monemvasia. With the capture of Corinth and Patra by rebel forces in 1733, the Governor of the Morea, stationed in the city of Tripolitsa, Hushrid Pasha, would flee to Constantinople. The city soon surrendered to the Greeks, with most of the eyalet falling to the hands of the rebels.
The provinces that had revolted came together to form the National Revolutionary Organization, composed of intellectuals, klephts, ship captains, land owners, bank clerks, revolutionary militias and former Ottoman administrators, who despite their differences, came together to form an instrument for the liberation of the Greek heartland. Soon, more revolts would ignite in the islands of Samos, Icaria and Chios, strengthening the organization even further. As the last Northern fortresses of the Morea fell one by one to the rebel cause, the revolution would spread to most of Attica and Thessaly, culminating in the victorious Battle of Athens in 1736.
As the revolt spread all over the Aegean Isles, the island's ship captains, under the leadership of the wealthy ship owner Ioannis Vlachos, more commonly known as Daskalogiannis, would band together to form a small naval fleet of private frigates, which attempted to pillage the Ottoman-held West Anatolian coastline and blockade trade. This sparked outrage amongst the wealthy Greek elites of Smyrna and Aydin, who condemned the revolution, calling it a "war of terror". The Ottoman authorities would respond by mass deporting Greek villagers from the Anatolian interior and Western coastlines. Hundreds of families would arrive to the ports of Nauplio as refugees. This bolstered the organization's war effort, but created an internal social disorder, as the refugee crisis worsened.
After a massacre at the village of Meskla in the island of Crete, the war chiefs and klephts there would rise up against the Empire. Soon, hundreds of volunteers from the island would travel to fight in the Attican front, and further contribute to the liberation of their homeland in the Cretan highlands, capturing mountainous fortifications and entrenching themselves, preparing for a war of attrition with the enemy Ottoman forces.
flag of the military order of Snt. Ioannis
The Militant Rhodians:[]
After an envoy was sent to the Knights Templar in (Spanish) Malta, the pope officially recognized the revolutionary struggle, and condemned the Ottoman authorities, proposing to send an intervention force in Rhodes and other islands in the Dodecanese like Kos, to protect the local Christians.Without hesitation, leader of the revolutionary organization's provisional assembly, Daskalogiannis, accepted the pope's offer, and a detachment of Maltan warriors was sent to Rhodes, officially establishing the Sovereign military order of Malta in Rhodes.
In the months following 1742, multiple villages in Epirus, Thessaly and Kastoria would revolt.The villages of Veroia, Katerini, Trikala and Arta would mutiny, diverting the attention of Ottoman forces in Aetolia and Attica away, this gave extra time to the revolutionaries in Athens to gather their strength and plan a retreat from the overwhelming military force.
Unfortunately for the revolutionaries, the Ottoman forces would completely crush the northern Greek mutinies, and send a snowball of refugees running towards the liberated lands, These refugees from the Macedonian and Epirot villages would later found settlements in the Peloponnese.
Thanks to the distraction of the northern Greek mutiny, the revolutionary organization captured most of central Greece and prepared to launch an offensive for Euboia and Thessaly.Meanwhile Crete had been fully liberated except the exclave of Ottoman Chania and the fort of Chandax, which were impenetrable fortresses supplied by Constantinople, that without cannons or siege artillery, were impossible to siege.
Russia's show of force,January 1747[]
Russian entry into the war would bring a new cause for celebration in Greece.The Russian empire had decided to intervene on behalf of the Greek revolutionaries and send a detachment to the Cyclades.The Ottoman empire was bracing itself for another Russo-Turkish war.This would spark the interest of Spain, which had negotiated with the knights of Rhodes to partition the island with the revolutionaries and the Spanish crown.Unfortunately for the revolutionaries, the Great powers were not getting involved out of the kindness of their own hearts, but out of an opportunity to expand their own realms at the expense of Turkey.
At the start of 1748, the revolutionary forces capture Lamia, but the Ottoman regiments in Chania are reinforced by an attachment of divisions from the mainland, which are sent to invade the rest of Crete.Soon the revolutionary forces at Moudania surrender, and Crete is left to the fate of Turkey and the Great powers once more.
1750,The treaty of Varna[]
The Russo-Turkish war ends with another defeat for the Sublime port.Spain manages to negotiate for the transfer of Rhodes over to its protection, and the knights permanently settle in the island, much to the dismay of the locals.As for Russia, Tsar Peter III demands the Cyclades (as well as other territories) outright for the Russian crown.He sets up a vassal duchy in the Cyclades to be governed by his cousin, founding officially the duchy of Archipelago.
Painting of the Greek revolutionaries
As for the revolutionaries, they are somewhat betrayed by the Great powers, as they negotiate not for the creation of an independent Greek state, seperate from the Ottoman Empire, but rather the handling of self-governance to the Greek-controlled regions of Rumeli and Morea, which become semi-independent (autonomous) eyalets, but stay in the Empire.Daskaloggianis feels betrayed by his Russian and catholic allies, and forbids the signing of the Varna treaty by Greek revolutionaries, who boycott the treaty and refuse to participate.Regardless, their fate was sealed on paper, and they would have to find another way to give Greece its independence.
As per the Cretan Issue[]
The island of Crete was desired both by Russia and Spain alike, the Ottoman empire was reluctant to give it up in the treaty, thus a similar model implemented in the Morea and Rumeli was imposed on Crete as well.The creation of a nominally independent Ottoman vassal known as the Cretan State with its provisional government placed at the capital of Chania.The Ottoman empire still refuses to officially recognize the small state, and declares war and begins a naval invasion once the Russian forces withdraw in November of 1755.The island falls under Turkish yoke once more.However the harsh oppression of the Cretans, and forced dislocations, would lead to clashes becoming more often than usual, and the Ottoman rule on the island, could be described as loose at best, often times, nonexistent.
Morea-Rumeli in chaos[]
The regions "liberated" by the Great powers are nothing more than anarchic territories after the disbanding of the revolutionary organisation.The turkish governors,Husrid and Agmet Pashas respectively, are unable to maintain any authority in the region, which is governed locally by Patron-protectors, local mafias who rule the Morea with their administrative and economic shadow-influence.In Central Greece there are not any strong Patron webs, but rather the regional bodies are led by Megaloarmatoloi, who continue to wage a shadow war behind the scenes on Ottoman governance, either with their social disobedience, or their constant sabotaging of the Ottoman administrative levers.
The Thyra dispute[]
The island of Thyra(Santorini) was only nominally part of the Duchy of Archipelago as per treaty, however the revolutionaries had refused to leave the island, and it was causing tensions with the Russian Emprire.The Russian administration allows for the revolutionary militias and bandits to settle in the islands of Thyra and Syros, only under the condition that they retire and don't partake in any rebellious activity, the klefts accept begrudgingly.
The 1766 Samos revolt and the 2nd struggle for independence[]
Flag of the military order of Samos
Revolutionary activity reappeared in Samos, as the island had unresolved disputes with the Ottoman rulers, and under the guidance of the elder oplarchigoi, the establishment of a Council of Chiliarchs, who would yet another rebellion against the Turks.They would be initially supported by Venice and Russia, who covered their military expenses.Their brilliant bravery would only inspire more to revolt, as they did, in Icaria, Psara and Fournoi.
Soon another rebellion in the Peloponnese was being plotted.This time a younger generation of revolutionaries, having leaned from the mistakes of the past, were ready to guarantee support from one or more Great powers, before starting the revolt.This new organisation, would be known as the Odessa Company and had significant ties to the Tsarina Catherine II, who was particularly fond of the creation of an independent Greek Empire.In the twilight of the 1768 Easter, The revolutionaries would make their first move, establishing a new foothold in the Peloponnese.All authority in the Turkish eyalets of Rumeli and the Morea would collapse, and the country would be in open revolt.Once the revolutionary plans of the Odessa company were leaked to the public, the Greek bishopric in Athens would give its blessing, and a new revolutionary struggle would begin.
The First Hellenic Republic is proclaimed[]
Flag of the first republic
Panagiotis Benakis, Konstantinos Kolokotronis and Grand Colonel Lambros Katsonis would form a Triumvirate government which would act as an executive and legal administrative body during the early years of the revolution.With the blessing of Catherine, In April 23,1770 the first republic would set its capital at Nauplio, and would prepare for war with the Ottoman Empire.
At the Argos conference, the political instruments of the revolution would assemble, in order to discuss matters of the revolution and the way to conduct the war.Panagiotis, was inclined to support his favored elite friends from Russia, and didn't believe in the authority of the Megaloarmatoloi and klefts, who despite their veteran status, weren't exactly kin on diplomatic issues and internal politics, seen as simple warlords and instruments to conduct military campaigns.On the other hand, kolokotronis being a warlord himself, was outraged by the attitude Benakis showed towards the revolutionary militia, and conspired with the Prokritoi of the Peloponnese to overthrow him, unknown to Katsonis, who hadn't yet arrived to Nauplio from his ship arriving from Odessa.At the conference, the olparchigoi and Megaloarmatoloi expressed their grievances with the new rulership, and demanded that the new government respect the property and political struggles that they had partaken in the past decades.Benakis, reluctant to accept, assured the Megaloarmatoloi that their influence in Attica wouldn't be neglected, unless they refused to partake in the holy war for liberation of country and fatherland.Much to the dismay of economic elites in the Morea, Benakis did not hold the same attitude towards the political elite of Nauplio, refusing to allow them regional autonomy, and instead deciding to administer with his own appointed ministers.
Katsonis would arrive in Athens, after his ship almost got intercepted by an Ottoman frigate.Before he could arrive to Nauplio, the first Greek president, Panagiotis Benakis had been shot, his assassination being a clear power play and attempt at political influence by the wealthy Prokritoi of the Morea, who wanted to send a message that their oligarchic grip over the Peloponnese was not to be tread on.The provisional assembly immediately elected Konstantinos Kolokotronis, who has seen as more favourable by the oplarhirgoi and Megaloarmatoloi, and who wouldn't (as per his warlord-nature) interfere with the political dealings of the prokritoi and ship owning entrepreneurs of Nauplio and Patras.Thus this new government, was a coalition of multiple private interests, contrary to the unitary revolution-organ that the company first envisioned.
Benakis' portrait shortly before his assasination
Banner of the Prokritoi
First Civil war (1773-1778)[]
As the Megaloarmatoloi tried to take more and more power for themselves, the prokritoi became more weary, impatient with the political immaturity of Kolokotronis, who had been neglecting the internal chaos for his more experienced field of war games.Thus the prokritoi, together with the Kleftokapetanioi (wealthy class of warship owners and warriors, who had seen many successes in the previous revolutionary campaigns and had amassed wealth from looting and pillaging) formed a coalition to impose their own preferred government and topple the administration of Kolokotronis.Desperate for a solution, Konstantinos proposes reform, and calls for an Ethnosuneleusi (a national conference) to discuss peacefully state matters.Upon hearing the demands that the government has for them, the prokritoi and kleftokapetanioi storm out of the conference and continue rebelling against their authority, sighting that the reforms are against their interests.
Katsonis, who had been guarding in the front line with the Turks, waging a guerilla campaign against the overwhelming might of the empire, was shocked to hear that his own compatriots had just allowed their country to be exposed to a massive opening, and rushed to cover the news of the civil war, as to prevent it from spreading to the front and by extension the Ottoman troops.Regardless of his attempts, the sublime port would learn of the news of this mutiny in the morea, and begin an offensive in 1777, Katsonis terrified of the invasion, sends diplomats to Russia and Britain, to appeal for aid.Thankfully, the bold Ottoman move of aggression would be to their detriment, as it upset the now wrathful Great powers, which viewed the Ottoman declaration as a sign of disrespect and international indignity.
Chaos would erupt in the Greek government, as they learned that the Ottoman empire had broken through the frontline and was now besieging Nauplio.Katsonis made another appeal to the General Assembly to accept the Prokritoi's demands and continue the war as a united force, resolving the disputes afterwards.Once they realise that they are encircled, the prokritoi and Megaloarmatoloi come to standstill, agreeing on a ceasefire.
Greek awakening[]
The governor of Rumelia, Agmet pasha, would be hanged publicly, this would lead to a popular revolution, as the Athenian bishopric and the armatoloi of Rumelia and Aetolia would take up arms against their Ottoman oppressors.
Katsonis artistic revolutionary poster
Katsonis,seeing that this is the most opportune moment for Greece's war of independence, seizes the government's leadership for himself, and with help from his Russian emissaries, manages to secure enough influence to gain support of the army and the urban elite on his side.He however, to protect the state from mistakes such as the first civil war,Disbands the political organ of the general assembly, instead re-organising it into the Emergency military government.Katsonis adopts the blue ensign of the flag, and Greece's first republic is dismantled, becoming the first Greek state, with himself on the center as Governor-general.Katsonis would move the capital away from Nauplio to Athens, in order to move away from the political instability of Nauplio, and potentially to avoid any assassination attempt by disgruntled prokritoi.
Crete soon joins the revolutionary struggle (1782), and the fight for liberation is taken directly to the Ottoman empire.Katsonis would organize a coherent military force with the help of Russian and British officers, and with guns supplied to him by philhellenes, crucial foreign supporters of the revolutionary cause, would wage war on the Turkish sultanate.His initial military campaigns would be unsuccessful, as the imposing turkish army would capture much of Central Greece and march towards Attica, But the rallying cry of the revolution would inspire revolt in other parts of the empire, like Chalcidice, Epirus and Macedonia.These minor revolts would provide significant supply points for the revolutionary army, and the state's militia would wage attrition wars by capturing Ottoman caravans and crippling domestic trade.The army would make its way to Ioannina, capturing portions of Epirus and establishing a foothold, but the Ottoman government's race to Attica came to a peak, when they begun the siege of Athens once more, This time, the Greek army was thrown in to disarray, as their new capital had fallen into the enemy's hands.Katsonis pushed the leadership back to Nauplio, but he himself was more preoccupied with the Epirus campaign, as it was an important region for the revolutionary cause.Believing that with the capture of chunks of land in northern Greece, Katsonis would force the Ottoman government to a choke hold, and end in a favorable peace treaty between the two sides, thus he launches a campaign to capture Thessaly and encircle the southern Turkish army.
Greek government in Trikala[]
Upon seizing the town of Trikala (1795), Katsonis moves his administration there and begins organizing a full frontal assault.This catches the Ottoman leadership off guard, which makes a desperate retreat from the Morea and Attica to prevent an encirclement.But Katsonis' fears would soon be realized, as his long neglected political rivals, would take advantage of his absence, to impose their own authority that coincided with the Greek state's.The prokritoi thus effectively begin another revolt, with the same intentions of seizing power for themselves and to impose one of their own in position of leadership.Katsonis unwilling to be controlled by the desires of the Morean elites, sends a detachment over to stop the rebellion.This marks a halt for Katsonis' plans to seize Larissa however, seeing as he now has to deal with a lousy revolt in the mainland, The turkish forces take advantage and push back the Greek forces from Larissa.
The Prokritoi's victory[]
Alexandros Maurokordatos portrait
As Katsonis' did not handle the revolt fast enough, the prokritoi gained more ground, and eventually besieged Athens, which they turned into their new administrative seat, seeing as he was now overwhelmed, Katsonis chose to resign his political leadership over to the prokritoi, who chose a politician with important economic and external influence for the position of leadership.That was non other than Alexandros Maurokordatos, famous constantinopolitan elite, political figure and entrepreneur with ties both in the Ottoman empire and Britain.He begun to lead the government with a less tight approach, taking the stance of a coalition-led leadership until the end of the war.The chaotic events in the mainland led to the withdrawal of troops from the hinterland, Greece would loose both Larissa and Ioannina, and the Turkish forces would begin another offensive.Seeing as the leadership of Maurokordatos no longer favors him, the prokritoi launch another revolt with the attempt to overthrow him, But this is met with way less support, and the revolt fails.Maurokordatos puts down the revolt with his regiments, but this causes the collapse of the Epirot front.
European Intervention in the war[]
The European powers (Great Britain, France, Germany and Russia) would convene the Council of London, in which they would decide the Mediterranean nation's future.The Ottoman Empire and Greece were to end all hostilities immediately, after which, a 5 week period would come where the Great powers would decide concessions and border changes.
The British proposal[]
A map of Greece and its territories as outlined by British diplomats
Alexandros Maurokordatos and his diplomats, staunch Anglophiles, would make their attempts at gaining the favor of the English Emperor in London, they believed that solely Britain could be the guardian to secure Greek independence, seeing as how they had a vested interest in the middle east, following their campaign at capturing Jerusalem and Jaffa.Greece managed to secure enough support from the British diplomats as to ensure that the country would come out of the war liberated, but the issue of its borders was left undetermined, and no further promises to the Greek governor were made.Alas the British caved in and decided to allow Greece to expand into Central Greece (Rumeli) and Crete, only under the circumstance that Greece became a monarchy.The Greek diplomats willingly accepted this proposal, and the European powers would enter further negotiations for the establishment of a Greek monarchy under their supervision.
The initial proposal was made to appease all Great powers, a liberated Greece upon to the Peloponnese would be taken away from the Ottoman empire, and it would also encompass Crete and the Aegean islands of Samos, Chios, Psara and Icaria.This was seen as unfavorable to the Greek diplomats, due to the disadvantageous position it would place Greece on, being at the choke hold of the Ottoman empire, with a small land connection to the rest of Greece.
The Russian Proposal[]
After witnessing the British reluctance to allow Greece to expand beyond Thessaly, the Russians felt obligated to support their orthodox brethren, seeing as it would be unfair for the Greeks who had waged such a long and resilient war against their Ottoman rivals.The Russians supported the idea of Greece expanding into Rumeli and Aetolia, however Epirus and Thessaly were already out of the question, seeing how the European powers did not want to involve themselves in another war with Turkey.Russia thus supported Greece's territories to encompass all of Central Greece and the Morea, as well as the islands in the north aegean and Crete.Britain, which saw this as a Russian show of force, decided to bend Russia's negotiating tactic and demand that London would only accept an expanded Greece as long as the Duchy of Archipelago came under Greek and British protection.The Russian Tsar understood that the Greek nation would be a worthy investment, and could only see Russia as a reliable ally if they gave them their desired core territory, And this way a compromise would be reached, where the British would get their own colony in Cythera, directly transferred from the Ottomans to Britain, and the Russians would give the duchy of archipelago over to Greece, as long as the cousin of the Tsar was allowed to remain its nominal duke (effectively turning it into a Russo-Greek protectorate).
The Treaty of Constantinople[]
In the treaty, the Ottoman empire would be made to give up the territories of Rumeli,Aetolia,Morea, the islands of Chios, Samos, Icaria, Psara, Crete, the North Sporades, and other minor concessions to Greece, as well as withholding from any unprovoked future hostilities.The Ottomans gave the island of Cythera over to Britain.The islands of Samos and Crete specifically wouldn't be annexed directly into Greece, but rather would be made into autonomous protectorates of Greece with their own local administrations, For example Samos was allowed to retain its council of chilliarchs, and Crete retained a provisional parliament with both Greek and Turkish members to ensure and peaceful transition of leadership.The cyclades finally-Where to be transferred over to Greece as a protectorate, but remained under the romanov dynasty.
As per the royal issue, Greece was already set to become amongst the European monarchies, but the real problem was, which dynasty to choose for the throne.The dynastic dispute was to be discussed between 3 powers, Germany, Britain and Russia.The British refused any Russian proposal to place a branch of the Romanov dynasty on the throne, seeing as how it would place Greece directly into Russia's sphere of influence.Britain didn't make any proposals outright, instead choosing to influence the perception of the foreign and Greek diplomats.Germany's proposal seemed lucrative at first, they offered Price Alfred of Saxe-Coburg Gotha to be Greek king, this would lead to a valuable alliance with Germany and tie links between the two countries, but it was rejected upon learning of Russia's withdrawal from the cyclades trade in case something like this happened.Seeing a stalemate, all of the Great powers withdrew from the issue, and instead Greece was to elect its own king, thus Alexandros Maurokordatos became de facto regent of the Kingdom of Greece, until a dynasty was selected.
The proclamation of the Kingdom of Greece[]
The Kingdom of Greece as outlined in the Treaty between the Ottoman Empire, Greece and the Great Powers
Economies woes[]
After the war, Greece's governance would not be smooth, they still had to tie loose ends, like the thousands of refugees awaiting to be settled after they had been expelled from their homelands, and the countless projects that the government would have to start in order to modernize the backwards post feudal Greek heartland and propel it onto the world's stage as a competitive force.The regent, Alexander, took a loan to begin the reconstruction of the capital, and to ensure the interests of his party were guaranteed.Many war veterans were left homeless or unemployed after the war, having given their whole lives to the revolution, they were now the most volatile social class.
The issue of infrastructure was vital, since there practically was non.The liberated regions of Greece had been rotting under the ottoman administration, and the countryside looked backwards, the rural towns were unlike Western cities, which numbered it's populations at tens of thousands per square kilometres, in Greece it was the exact opposite, the country was sparse and depopulated, with little to no development outside of a few towns and cities.The first capital, Nauplio, had been basically the same since Venetian years, and the Parthenon didn't resemble anything like it's modern counterpart.Athens itself was a rural and primitive town, it's foundations lay to ruin, exhausted by war.Everything had to be built from scratch, there were no manufactures, no railroads, and certainly no industry.Not only that but there was rampant corruption within the political elite and public sector.Nepotism was a common occurrence, which prevented people from getting important positions.Monopolies could be found in every sector of the economy, and without any banks, money lending was a process in which only the lender benefited from, taking advantage of the weak agricultural backbone, increasing interest rates to squeeze profits, decreasing productivity in the farming sector and stagnating the economy.
Greece imported a lot of its goods, far more than what it exported.Since there were no materials of interest, or experienced work force to process them if there were any.Often Greece would trade with countries like Russia and Britain for the very basics, like wheat, important metals, cotton, cloth and other things.63% of its imports was made up by agricultural products, and this was only stable as long as harvests were good and supply was high.The Greek economy had to be built from nothing, especially in the industrial sector, where the country still used outdated windmills and Aqueducts for day to day consumption.
The naval sector was an important pillar of the economy, as it was he one thing the Greeks were really experienced at.Greece's dockyards and shipping industry was really lucrative, as the biggest docks in Chios and Syros were vital for the construction and maintenance of ships, they were also supplied with many experienced workers, as refugees from naval hubs in Greek lands outside the kingdom knew their job very well, Eventually, shipping companies would grow into massive conglomerates in Greece, and dominate the economy.
The first national bank
The first national bank[]
Some of the biggest entrepreneurs in Greece would come together, and with the help from the Government's funding, would create Greece's first banking organisation, the National bank.The creation of a bank was vital to the function of a proper financial system, and the national bank would gain the responsibility to print money, as well as be responsible for Greece's foreign transactions and loan handling.Since its creation in 1811, the national bank managed to curve lender's influence over society, and promote legal money leasing methods to the populous.Britain would also lend the national bank 2000 pounds to begin its ventures.
Manufactories in Greece[]
plans for the construction of a textile manufactory
The economic prospects of industry were vital for western European countries, but in Greece, they had little to no presence in the national and social economic development.There were some industrial units here and there, most dedicated to local needs and providing small services, the most prominent units were textile manufactures, which processed Greece's plentiful supply of leather.The rest were either agricultural units or dockyards.The evolution of industry in Greece was lackluster, with any serious attempts at expanding it being made after the 1830s-1840s.Until then there was little to no experienced manpower to operate the machinery necessary for this work.
1835,construction of the first national railway[]
Cart-postal of a railway station in Volos
Greece was nowhere near the economic and technological development of the western industrial cities, in which the presence of a railway signaled the arrival of the new age, the symbols of the industrial revolution.Talks begun around 1830, and by 1835, the government had set aside a few savings in order to start the project, the railroad's construction would be a significant task to go through, not only because of Greece's pathetic infrastructure, but also because of the lack of economic interests in the railroad itself.There was high optimism, the railroad was set to bring much economic prosperity in the towns it passed through and provide valuable supply and network across the cities, but that it didn't really realize.The naval sector had always outperformed the railways by a margin, since it took less time to cut time and sail around the country than to go through the mountainous rural interior, thus many preferred the shipping sector over the railway, and trains in Greece failed to gain popularity.
The outcome of the second National assembly[]
Alexandros Maurokordatos and the 2nd Ethnosuneleusi[]
The elephant in the room, that being-the issue of the Greek royal dynasty, would finally be answered in December 1, 1813.The Kingdom of Greece and the national assembly would elect a new significant dynasty to rule the country.Various opinions would be expressed concerning the new monarch's dynasty.All three of the main political factions all expressed various opinions.The Officers-who supported the Anglophile Maurokordatos administration, and made up a significant portion of governmental positions, were in favour of establishing closer ties with Britain, and thus preferred a British monarch, their party chose Gilbert Elliot, governor-general of Albionoria.But there was also an internal faction within the party that believed Greece was in need of a native monarch, one who could understand and deal with the problems of the country with more caution and care than a foreign one.They decided that they should place Maurokordatos as monarch, and squash any decent in case the elitist armatoloi and klefts rose up to oppose them.
Ioannis Kolletis portrait
The Elite of Rumeli and Attica[]
portrait of Andreas Metaxas
This faction was initially against any form of Greek monarchy, instead preferring the Republican spirit carried by the torch of antique Hellenism and the spirit of Periklis.However as the Great powers imposed their will on the little country, they realized that they had no choice but to bend the knee.At most they could pass their own influence inside the country, and elect a monarch of their liking, But it was heavily disputed as to who would be chosen, seeing as the Klefts were reluctant to pick a foreigner, and the urban elite wanted a puppet-monarch, who they would be able to control.
Finally there were the bad apples among them, who, lead by the ambitious but corrupt political figure, and famous war general, Ioannis Kolletis, plotted against the very notion of a monarchy, and envisioned a republic, under their own militant vanguard, as per the ideas of the enlightenment and the Vesperian revolutions.
The unexpected outcome[]
Perhaps it was known amongst a few, but little knew of Alexandros' ambition as ruler of Greece, the prestige his position as Regent gave to him was unlike no other he had seen in his life.In his view, only he could see the vision of a prosperous Greece, one that only he could realize.Conspiring with inner party members and a few politically affiliated officers, Alexandros Maurokordatos staged an incident, where he proclaimed to the public his alleged link to the Byzantine Empire,through his own dynasty, the house of Maurokordatos.In September 1814, He and a few of his closest associates secretly crowned him, 'his royal majesty, king of Greece, Alexandros I', of course they had not alerted the national assembly, which was still looking for a dynasty.This coronation was later leaked to the public, and Alexandros confirmed the suspicions, claiming that they(as they being the people) had chosen him to lead as the new righteous king.This sparked public outrage, calling for the resignation of the Maurokordatos cabinet, and for new snatch elections to be held, the biggest proponent of this was Ioannis Kolletis, who was at the front row of calling for the overthrow of the government.
Alexandros and his cabinet were prepared for any inevitable clash with the public and the military veteran league.After an assassination attempt on the life of Andreas Metaxas, prominent theocratic and staunch conservative, anti-Russian political figure, sparked outrage amongst the population, mainly the peasant and clergy classes, which switched sides and started supporting the veteran league.This was a public relations disaster for Alexandros, who was now afraid that, if this was to prematurely leak to the international press, there would be pressure from the Great powers to give up his position.
The Compromise[]
Alexandros proposed a peaceful negotiation for the re-organization of the government through non violent means, He hoped, that at least-By answering to the demands of the veterans and the angered populous, he could calm the situation and mallow the climate to allow himself to stay as monarch.Ioannis Kolletis, as far as he knew, was not a morale political figure, and could be bargained with.The veteran league's demands were set straight, they demanded that:
- Alexandros Maurokordatos hand over the position of governmental leadership to Ioannis and the veteran league
- De-mobilize his guard in the Palace parliament, in Syntagma square
- Pay the veterans of the war the appropriate reparations for their contribution in the revolutionary struggle.
Alexandros suggested that, upon agreeing to all of these demands, He should be allowed to stay as the king of Greece, to stabilize the country's vacancy of leadership, and only rule ceremoniously, whilst handing the position of prime minister to Ioannis Kolletis and his government.The veteran league was shocked by this proposal, seeing it as a blatant misconception of what they were fighting for, and did not support Alexandros staying king, However, Ioannis saw this as an opportunity to expand his own influence, utilizing Alexander as a tool to advance the interests of the veterans and his own clique.
An unstable - Semi functioning government[]
The government for the next 7 years would experience a severe instability and malfunction of its administrative mechanisms on all levels, whilst the problems of the parties would bleed into society and public life, forever shaping the political and cultural landscape of the Greek nation.Ioannis Kolletis, being the prime minister and de-facto ruler of the country, did not hesitate to use any means necessary to ensure that he and his cronies stayed in power.He often used violent means if necessary, did not withdraw from terrorizing civilians so that they voted for him every 5 years as well as in the snap elections declared after the 1814 putsch, he put forwards a series of parliamentary reforms which granted his party 4/6 governmental seats and rendered the senate ineffective, any criticism against his party could be dealt with by his own personal guard, the praetorians, criminals and other petty gang-members who were bribed to protect the members of the party.
Ioannis Kolletis funded his own personal treasury with money he laundered through the government, often directly stealing from the tax payers of Athens and directing the wealth towards his party's bank accounts.Between 1817 and 1821, his government held 5/7 ministries, with all of the public officers being either bribed or directly influenced by Kolletis.He himself failed to appear in the senate, and his party was slow and hesitant to take any decisions, this basically made all parliamentary discussion useless, as the parties could not decide on any reforms without the presence of the leader of the biggest one.This could only be described as a form of parliamentary dictatorship, since he didn't impose his own form of government, but rather utilized the existing one to his benefit.
Ioannis Kolleti's coup (1822-1825)[]
As Kolletis had collectivized all state authority under his singular ownership , he and his fans prepared the next stage of their political power grab.In the following months after Alexandros fell ill, Kolletis moved to take action, by arming his praetorians and party members, as well as bribing more of his veterans and utilizing connections in the army, he turned the country in his favor and against the king.The international climate was unaware of the situation in Greece, and certainly not the events that were about to unfold.
Kolletis marched with his praetorian guard to the senate's building, and after declaring the King to be discounted, he moved to take all political power directly into his hands.He suspended all parties in senate, disabling parliament, and turning the country into a one-party dictatorship.He utilized brutal force to crackdown on any descent in Athens, and built up a force to terrorize the urban civilian population.He proclaimed scam elections, in which he had already made sure to install non secretive ballots, this way he could manipulate the people into voting for him without using any force.By confiscating the government's wealth, he could secure that the positions in the public sector was filled with people only loyal to him.Alexandros left the country on November 19, 1822, traveling to Pavia.Ioannis could finally implement his party's desire, and proclaimed the monarchy dethroned.Ending it, and replacing it with the newborn Second Hellenic Republic.
The short leaved second republic[]
Kolletis would rule as a dictator, president for life, with all the country's power concentrated into his hands and the hands of his allies, he was practically immune.The country's economy started to stagnate in the years following the coup, and by 1823, the country's wealth had decreased by 12%, GDP going down, and the government demanding higher taxes from the populous.This social unrest caused by the constant fear mongering, and militant oversight, would lead to the downfall of productivity.Without money, Greece could not repay its debtors in Amsterdam and London, and started to loose credit in international markets, damaging trade.Kolletis became notorious for being a geopolitical pariah, His infamous diplomatic doctrine, known as The Megali Idea would become the laughing stock of Europe, as people saw Greece as nothing more than a small unstable backwater, that could not handle the basic financial problems, let alone expand into the Ottoman Empire.
By 1825, Kolletis was a public enemy to the Greek people.His economic mishandling started to loose favors with the internal and external factors that barely kept his system of governance together.It did not help that the first dethroned king of Greece, Alexandros, was out of the country in Paris, speaking out against his political injustices.The Great powers started to put pressure on Greece.In January, Britain and Russia blockaded the port of Pereaus, and demanded that Ioannis reside his position to a democratically elected candidate.He refused, and soon the Anglo-Russian troops had entered and occupied the port of Pereaus, spreading a disease to the population and causing a pandemic.Ioannis was now desperate.He attempted to flee the country over to neutral Ottoman Yanya, but it was to no avail as he was caught and arrested on his way to the border.Following these events, a new provisional president of Greece was elected, Ioannis Makriyanis.Following negotiations with Britain, both powers withdrew their navies, Greece was now on the path to democratize.Kolletis was executed, and Alexandros was allowed to return as a regular citizen.
The Restoration[]
flag of the 2nd Kingdom of Greece
Makriyanis and the political figures of the 2nd Republic came together to convene another national assembly (ethnosuneleusi), this would settle the question of Monarchy or Republic.Upon influence from foreign diplomats, the assembly voted in favor (4-1 votes) of a monarchy.Thus Greece was to restore its throne, but, since they had learned from past mistakes, they were now to chose amongst a foreign dynasty.
Due to Russia's influence in Greek political affairs, there were some options to choose a royal from the princes of the Russian empire, but not from the ruling Russian imperial dynasty, as to not upset foreign relations with other Great powers.After some talks back and forth, the diplomats came to a conclusion, and the assembly was to vote decided to elect a member of the Cantacuzeno dynasty, to the throne of Greece, a Romanian (originally Greek) family, that had ruled Wallachia for some years after the fall of Ottoman rule there, and was a favourite amongst the Orthodox crowd and the Russian Empire's ambassadors.Britain surprisingly gave its blessing, and the restoration was set, on July, of 1826.
Member of the aristocratic cantacuzinos dynasty, Alexandros Kantakouzinos, a famous participant of the Greek war of independence, warrior and liberator, as well as significant çiflik (estate) owner was chosen to become monarch of Greece, after the recommendation of the Russian and Romanian diplomats, his ties to the Greek Danubian princes.And thus, the Moldovan-Greek aristocrat was to embark on his journey to Athens, in order to be properly crowned as King of the Hellenes.He himself was quite excited upon learning of the good news, as he had always fought for Greece, and had a vested interest as he and his family owned property there.He was young and not married, which only bolstered his usefulness, as he could be used to marry into one of the infamous European dynasties, through either a German or French princess.Alas for the country, the king chose a Ukrainian wife, much to the dismay of the government and his ministers.
The coronation[]
As he arrived in Athens, the new king was prepared for his coronation, in which many members of the European political sphere where invited, most notably the English and Russian Emperors, the Holy Roman Emperor, who made a significant donation to the Greek orthodox church, and the Pope, who came to congratulate Greece for its continued survival over the past years.This jump-started an era of new diplomatic relations with the other European entities, and pulled Greece's battered reputation out of the gutter.
Tatoi palace[]
Upon his arrival to Athens, the king begun a royal tour, one of the villages he visited was the rural suburb of Acharnes, where he greeted the arvanite population, and made a significant contribution by purchasing the area around modern day tatoi residency which gazed on the slope of the beautiful mountain of Parnitha.In the following years it would grow into a significant marble of the local community, and royal capital of Greece.
The Kithyra purchase[]
In 1817, Greece made the request to Britain to buy the island of Kithyra (confiscated as a concession by the British in the treaty of Constantinople), for 1000 pounds.Due to the economic growth the country had experienced in the past few years, the state could afford the purchase, and combined with the cordial relations built up with Britain, this transaction was accepted.And the island reunited with its fatherland.
A new economic initiative[]
After the new loans taken by the Alexander administration, the country would invest into its most profitable economic sectors, mainly in agriculture and the extraction of natural earth minerals, which whilst small in quantity, existed in a variety and were sizeable enough to make profitable.The government enlisted the support of an Anglo-Spanish mineral company, Ferdinand industries.The contract would foresee the installment of new quarries to enlarge the mining industry, and would create new jobs for both locals and foreigners alike.Greece also processed a valuable amount of marbles, which would become highly sought after in the international market, but their extraction and processing would begin after the 1840s.Greece would also invest into the sugar, raisin, tobacco, and cotton market.During the collapse of the Chickasaw confederation (1841) Greece would become the leading producer in cotton inside the Mediterranean.
Re-organization of the military[]
In order to prepare the country for its future territorial endeavors, army reform was vital.In order to transition Greece's small and weak militia force into a coherent skirmish infantry force, capable of competing with its eastern counterparts.
The death of the king[]
Portrait of Alexander II upon his coronation
In January of 1842, monarch Alexander Kantakouzenos, would be found dead due to health complications and old age.He passed away peacefully in his palace of Tatoi, With the royal funeral being attended by many members of his family, including his brother who had arrived from Saint Petersburg, George Kantakouzenos and many rich phanariote compatriots, from Moldova and Constantinople.Preparations were made for the coronation and succession of his son, prince Alexander II Kantakouzenos.
Greece's first constitution[]
| ‹ No Election 1857 ›
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| 1847 Greek Parliamentary Senate elections | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| July 10, 1847 | ||||
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| Nominee | Augustinos Kapodistrias | Konstantinos Kanaris | ||
| Party | Συνταγματική Ένωση (Constitutional Union) | Εθνική βούληση (National Initiative) | ||
| Home state | Corfu | Aetoloakarnania | ||
| Electoral vote | 210 | 90 | ||
| States carried | 7 | 3 | ||
| Percentage | 70.9% | 29.1% | ||
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| Chancellery election results map | ||||
Chancellor before election
No Chancellor No party Elected Chancellor
Augustinos Kapodistrias Constitutional Union | ||||
In September of 1843, the new king would fulfill his promise of giving the country its first constitution.Which would allow for proper democratic institutions, the enabling of a senate with real executive, and the management of the King's authority.At first this move was opposed by the clergy and rural elite, large plantation owners and some few megaloemporoi (enterprenuers).However most of the country would come to see the constitution as an exciting and positive initiative, that would benefit all.Thus the first chancellor of the country's senate, and de facto head of government, would be chosen by the unilateral vote of the parties, and the king would have the ability to VETO, in case of any complications, What was most importantly clarified, was the Dedilomeni which meant that only the party with the broad approval of the senate and parliament could be chosen to form a government, and this would prevent smaller parties from running in the elections alone, promoting unity and coalition governments.
Unification with the Island autonomies[]
After the Constitutional reform, there was no need for the island autonomies anymore, like Samos and Crete.The unification of the Cretan Greek and Turkish parliaments into 1 allowed for the integration of Cretan politicians and national guard into the broader Greek state.Similarly to Crete, Samos disbanded the hegemony of chiliarchs, and embraced the constitutional monarchy's union with open arms.
1847 Epirot revolt[]
In Epirus, a small force of rebellious klefts would go against the authority of the Empire and its pashalik in Yanya.The Epirots would launch a few initial successful campaigns of guerilla warfare against the Ottomans.The Greek government would send guns and support for the rebels.But inevitably the rebellion would fall, and with the Ottoman encirclement of Epirus, the revolt would lead to nowhere.However some refugees from Ioannina, Argyrokastro and rural regions, would follow trails to the liberated fatherland, providing a small boost to the local economies, eventually the Epirots would be settled in Arta, Astros and Naupaktos.
1847 Senate elections[]
In the first ever elections held in the Kingdom of Greece, the only parties that managed to concentrate enough of a voter base to establish a majority government where the Syntagmatiki Enosi (Constitutional Union) and the Ethniki Voulisi (National Initiative).Lead by the former independence war revolutionary and ex member of the Russian imperial army, Augustinos Kapodistrias.Who was running alongside his party's second nominee, his own brother, popular philanthropist and ex Russian count, Ioannis Kapodistrias.Due to the popularity of the two brothers and their contributions to the country, along with their political connections to Russia, and the favor of the country's new monarch, the election was an expected victory for their party.
Their competitor, was famous independence war veteran, admiral Konstantinos Kanaris, who, despite his immense contribution to the liberation war, and the burning of the Ottoman flagship, was not precisely keen on political matters regarding internal affairs, and was thus overshadowed by his younger, more hotblooded Kapodistrian rivals.Despite that, his nomination for chancellor would begin a series of events that led to the creation of The National Rally and the National Salvation both parties which would characterize the future politics of Greece.
After the shocking death of Augustinos Kapodistrias, his brother-Ioannis, would retire from politics, spending most of his life committing to writing about the lifetime of him and his brother, and other famous revolutionaries.This facilitated the political comeback of Kanaris and his party back into relevancy, as they would go on to win the 1857 chancellery elections, and prepare the country for its next war..
The Macedonian war (1863-1865)[]
At the start of June, shots had been fired in numerous villages around the Ottoman eyalet of Manastir.The result of these attacks on civilians by Ottoman authorities would spark outrage amongst the Balkan communities, and especially the Greek community of Macedonia, which was impacted by the burning of villages in Ochrid and Monastir, and the continuous chaos and violence against christian populations.
The Kingdom of Greece responded with a diplomatic envoy to the sublime port, and supplements along with support to the refugees fleeing the region.Upon hearing of this, the Ottoman government tried to put pressure on the humanitarian aid coming into Central and Northern Macedonia, pausing refugee movements, or placing them in internment camps.This would result in heavy backlash, and the Greek government would take action against the Ottoman empire, issuing an outcry to their allies in Britain and Russia, to come to their aid against the Ottomans.
The beginning of the war[]
Greek forces around Volos and across Preveza would mobilize, the navy would depart Athens and enter the Aegean, in order to guard Chios and Samos, which were close to the Ottoman heartland.By September the Ottoman army was marching down to Thessaly, the first confrontations between Greek and Turkish forces would be seen in the villages of Almyros, Karditsa and Palamas.With the Ottoman army outnumbering the Greek one, the state was worried that they might be overrun, but thanks to the work of their British allies, the Ottomans lost their battalions arriving from Ottoman Syria through the gulf of Cyprus thanks to the work of the English navy.The Ottomans were also held down in Bulgaria and Serbia, with both regions being flooded with Slavic rebellions.
Serbia's entry into the war[]
The Principality of Serbia would make its entry into the war, when the Ottoman-held village of Ćuprija exploded into civil disobedience, the Serbian army entered and pacified the region,. however provoking war with the Ottoman Empire at the same time.The Hungarians were inclined to help their Serbian underdog, seeing as it provided them a significant shield against the Ottomans.Now the war and its odds were completely stacked against the Ottomans, with the British, Greeks, Hungarians and Serbs, all attacking them on 4 fronts.
The Antartes (Guerillas)[]
In the region of Ottoman Selanik, an organisation dedicated to liberating the reek homelands was founded 2 years prior, the Hellenic Commitie of Macedonia 'HCM'. of course this organization doesn't only clash with the Ottoman authorities, but also with the Serbs, Bulgarians and Romanians in the region, who-having founded their own unique groups, attempt to carve out a sphere of influence inside the Ottoman Empire for their respective countries.
The Greek army would liberate Larissa at the 10th of October, the stunning success of the Thessaly campaign would boost morale and drive the Ottoman front line back to Epirus, which was also under siege since the Albanian and 2nd Epirot revolts.In the meantime the Serb forces would push south towards Ottoman novi pazar, and Montenegro soon made its entry into the war.This effectively turned the Macedonian war, into a Balkan war.
The King's army in Veroia[]
After Britain made a successful siege of Damascus, the Ottoman Empire was in a hardy position , and became desperate for peace.The Serbo-Hungarian forces had captured Bosnia-Hums, liberated novi pazar and were pushing towards Macedonia, Whislt this was happening, in the south, the Greek army had liberated Thessaly, and had entered the village of Veroia, proclaiming a victory over the Turkish occupiers.Epirus was still disputed, as the ottoman garrison had yet to depart, and was trying to get out of an encirclement.The Greek army detached a force to go capture Ioannina.
Battle of Homs[]
The British forces march from Damascus with the intent of capture all of Ottoman Syria, the Khedivate of Egypt, which had been fighting on the side of the Ottomans, switches sides upon learning of the news that the British army had taken Damascus and was planning a raid on Alexandria.Regardless, this distraction is enough for the British to incur on Homs, the Ottoman army had entrenched and was awaiting a long siege, but was met with a quick and shocking defeat in the first couple hours.The Ottoman governor handed the city to the British in the 17th of November 1865.
Raid on the Ottoman fleet[]
The Ottoman navy, stationed in Smyrna and under repair after its first defeat in the Eastern Mediterrenean, was attacked suddenly by the Greek submarines at night, this massively immobilized the Ottoman forces, and the Greek army made a landing in Mytilene.The citizens in the rest of the island of Lesbos were liberated following the capture of the city.
Battle of Thessaloniki[]
Perhaps the most vital part of the war, the Ottoman-Greek confrontation at Thessaloniki.The city had been heavily fortified since the prior wars that the Ottomans had fought with the Great Powers, but now the city's defenses were aging and weak.The improved artillery that Greece had managed to secure from its western partnerships made the siege of the city easier, and the Greek army, far more exercised and with improved morale, pushed the Turkish forces back, capturing 1/3 of the city by the end of 1865.
Aftermath of Thessaloniki - The Belgrade conference 1865[]
The Greeks, British, and Hungarians (along with their allies the Serbs and Montenegrins), met at Belgrade to discuss peace with the defeated Ottoman Sultanate.The defeated Ottomans were hoping for support from France, in order to prevent the British from further carving up their fragmented empire, but alas, it was to no avail, as the French delegates did not show up to show support for the Ottomans.In the conference, Britain and Hungary proposed a new status quo for the balkans, one with expanded balkan countries (to use as their own buffer states) and Britain specifically demanded Ottoman southern syria and parts of Rakka in Transjordan.The Ottoman Empire realized that it had to make some concessions, and consolidate, lest it get dragged into another series of devastating conflicts.Humiliated and damaged, the Ottoman proceeded with the negotiations on the terms of the Balkan powers.
Greek territorial claims[]
Despite the military success of the Greek army, the state knew that their claims on Ottoman territory would be severely limited by an intervention of the Great powers.In order to appease their British allies and to not provoke any other influence from Russia, France or Germany, the Greek delegates did not bring up the question of Thessaloniki, nor did they suggest its annexation into Greece, seeing as how it was the second most important Ottoman city in the balkans, and would be detrimental to getting other Great powers involved, maybe even on their side.
Instead the delegates proposed the following peace, which would enforce new Greek borders in the north, taking significant chunks of Macedonia, whilst annexing most of Epirus and the entirety of Thessaly.Despite the demand of the admiralty, Greece did not make a move for the rest of the northern Aegean, like Imbros, Tenedos or Samothrace.The diplomatic negotiations in the conference would soon conclude, and Greece would arise from the war victorious.
Treaty of Nicosia (1865)[]
Greece's new borders outlined in the treaty of Nicosia
After the treaty was signed, Greece found itself in control of the prosperous Thessalian plains, strengthening the young nation's agricultural output, improving the nation's economy, expanding the land-owning class, and unifying the Greek banking clans stationed there. Meanwhile, the land in Macedonia was rich in minerals such as coal, further increasing trade with other nations who were in the midst of industrialization. Serfdom in these areas was abolished, and the population was integrated within the rest of the country.
As these developments were occurring, elections came in 1867. The previous Chancellor and succesor of Kanaris and leader of the Nationalist Rally, Alexandros Komoundouros, was surprisingly defeated by the up-and-coming liberal politician, Charilaos Trikoupis.Trikoupis was a reformist, and vowed to industrialize the nation. He spent most of his term creating a railroad that would connect Athens to Volos, and providing lighting to the capital through electric power, that he built by securing contracts with foreign Anglo-German electric companies (Like Thomas Edison technologies). He claimed that there would be an initiative for the creation of a canal in Corinth, which would cut the time needed for ships to sail across the Peloponnese, and go directly to the capital.The backwater that was Greece, seemed to be transforming into a thriving little nation.
But as reforms were taking place, news arrived from the North. A Bulgarian revolution that had begun just a year ago in the city of Tarnovo, had now spread to much of Macedonia and was reaching Thrace. The revolution had pushed the Ottomans back to Andrianople, but as they were regrouping their forces and planned for a counterattack, Russia joined the war in 1868, on the side of the Bulgarians, and massively tipped the scale, beginning the Bulgarian Wars.Bulgarian irregular units and guerillas were suddenly supported by the organized professional Russian military, who crushed the Ottoman counterattack in the Battle of Burgas and in the Second Battle of Varna. Following these disasters, the Ottoman forces abandoned most of their already fragile-Balkan holdings and retreated back to Constantinople, preparing for a last stand against the Russo-Bulgarian forces.
The First Bulgarian War[]
But to the dismay of the Greeks, the Bulgarians launched a surprise offensive on the Kingdom.claiming the lands in newly acquired Central Macedonia and Epirus, starting what would become known as the "Unfortunate War". Trikoupis' government tried to put up a resistance against the Bulgarian forces, which outnumbered them 2-1, with the staggering Bulgarian 360k troops, overwhelming the smaller Greek force of about 100k.They were subsequently defeated in the Siege of Ioannina, and were forced to cede the entirety of Epirus, which became a Bulgarian vassal, emulating its medieval counterpart, and called the "Despotate of Epirus". After the Epirote catastrophe, Trikoupis' government collapsed, and was replaced by Komoundouros', who tried to once more-handle the diplomatic mess that followed after the Great Powers supported the Ottomans against the Russians, who had now seized all of Crimea, starting the Chersonisan front of the war. But after a failed attempt to re-join the war and a subsequent economic collapse, his government also collapsed after a year, leading to Trikoupis narrowly becoming Chancellor again in 1870 through royal support by Alexander II.
This time, Trikoupis' policy was much more militaristic in nature. He abandoned the canal project completely, and instead diverted most resources on the economy and the military. He opened more mines in Macedonia, in an effort to increase exports.He brought British and German officers to train the Hellenic army, increasing its size and imported new equipment from abroad.At the same time, Russia had utterly defeated the Ottoman Empire and its allies in the Russo-Turkish and Chersonisan War, leading to a domino effect of coups and uprisings all throughout Anatolia, that would eventually culminate in the destruction of the Empire as a whole, as rival Islamic and pan-turkist factions fought for control.
Preparations for the second Bulgarian War[]
As the war in the Balkans was raging on, the Greek administration was preparing for their inevitable confrontation with an incredibly powerful Bulgarian enemy.What hastened the war readiness of the Greek population, and boosted support for the war, would be the explosive success of the Russo-Bulgarian armies against the Ottomans.It was clear that Turkish dominance in the Balkans had ended, first with the freedom of Greece and Serbia, later with their expansion into the Empire's territories, and now, the Bulgarian menace, carving up Turkey with the Russians.The Great Powers would eventually intervene in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire would be supported by Germany and Britain, which were hoping to stall Russian expansion into Europe, and prevent total domination of the Balkans, Black Sea region and Eastern Europe by Russia.The Caucasus front was unstable, with the Ottomans and their Georgian puppets barely holding the Russian army, whilst in the Balkans, the Bulgarians had stopped at Edirne and Thessaloniki.
However, at the eve of September, news from the Caucasian front reached the Sublime Porte, the Russian army had broken through and was marching down from Abkhazia into the Pontus region.The Bulgarian army made another failed offensive to take the fortified Edirne, but regardless the Ottomans had to re divert their forces to prevent a total collapse.With these escalations, it was obvious to the Greek government of Trikoupis, that the time was nigh, the Ottomans were on their last legs, and it was time to launch Operation Agamemnon.
Greek Intervention in the Bulgarian war[]
Map of the war campaign before Greek entry in 1870
The Ottoman Empire's garrison in Thessaloniki was a mere force of 15k troops, upon learning of this, the Greek army was sure that their offensive would catch both the Bulgarians and Ottomans off guard, taking the city would restore Greek honor, and restart their expansion into the region.Generals Thrasyvolous Manos and Nikolaos Makris took up the tasks of the Macedonian, and Epirot front respectively.As the Greek army's detachment of 120k troops rushed towards thessaloniki, another smaller force of 70k troops took Arta, whilst the Bulgarians were caught off guard and hadn't yet learned of Greece's entry into the war.The Bulgarian divisions sent to Ioannina, would confront the Greek force a couple days later.Meanwhile, in Thessaloniki, the Ottoman garrison would hold for 4 days, until inevitably surrendering the city to the Greek general Konstantinos Sapountzakis head of the Hellenic armed forces.The Bulgarians were enraged to realize that the city they had fought to take for so long had been handed to the Greeks, and rallied their Russian allies to jointly invade and occupy Thessaloniki, however the Russians refused, seeing as how the German volunteers had withdrawn and the HRE had abandoned all diplomatic ties with the Bulgarian Kingdom.The Bulgarians would prepare a lone invasion of Thessaloniki in the 11th of November, but the Greek army outnumbered the Bulgarian detachment.As the Ottoman Empire's forces in the Balkans were dwindling, the Greeks would take advantage of this, rushing the towns of Serres, Xanthi and Kavala, taking up most of eastern Macedonia and reaching western Thrace, in the battle of Dedeagac, they would beat the small ottoman force and drive them to Eastern Thrace, where both sides would prepare for a brutal confrontation.
The Battle of Rusion[]
At first, as the Greek forces, comprised of 65,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry, led by Konstantinos Sappountzakis, marched towards Eastern Thrace, they faced little resistance, due to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire's military, but that was about to change. On the 5th of March, Greek scouts intercepted a 80,000 strong Ottoman unit, commanded by the disgraced Hasan Tahsin Pasha, marching through mountain pass towards the town of Kesan, or as it was known to the Greeks, Rusion. They were sent by the Sultan with the mission to push back the Hellenic and Bulgarian armies in Thrace and retake Thessaloniki from the Greeks. Konstantinos acted decisively and split the army in two, ordering for 15,000 of his men to harass the Ottoman force, using the narrow mountain passes to their advantage. Meanwhile, he ordered for the rest of his army to take up strategic positions up in the forests close to Rusion, and form a shield against the Sultan's last hope to cling to his Balkan holdings. The 15,000 strong unit harassed the superior Ottoman force and disrupted its supply lines. They used the rocky and narrow terrain to their advantage, rendering the numerical difference useless, as they delayed the Turks for two days, inflicting heavy casualties.As Tahsin's detachment started approaching Rusion, they set up camp for the night. Then, on the early morning of the 8th, the remaining 50,000 Greeks came down from the surrounding mountains and forests in full force and ambushed the Ottomans, taking them by surprise before the sun had risen. Konstantinos' forces caught the Pasha in his sleep, as he scrambled to regroup his battered unit. The army was completely routed, while any retreating Ottoman soldiers were cut down by the Greek cavalry that came from the Southeastern plains. After the battle was over, more than 30,000 Turks were dead, including the Pasha himself, while 14,000 had been taken captured, and the rest had fled the field of battle. The Greek casualties were relatively minimal, at around 10,000 dead and 5,000 wounded. Rusion was nothing short of a triumph for Konstantinos, whose path towards Constantinople was now cleared of any obstacles.
Treaty of Verona[]
In the first of march, 1870, the Serene Republic of Venice finally fell, when, the Italian kingdom that had long fought the Austrians and Germans, with their French allies, defeated them, and took the marble city.In the 6th of march, the Austrian and Italian allies met at Verona to discuss peace terms, that would officially conclude the Latin wars.Surprisingly, thanks to the diplomatic maneuvers if a young and skilled diplomat of the Greek nation, Alexandros Zaimis, the Greeks won a seat at the conference.The annexation of Venice meant a lot for Greece,as it would finally have an opportunity to reclaim the long lost Ionian Islands (property of Venice from medieval times).
Italy and Austria arranged a new border agreement, that would cede the entire Venice metropolitan area to Italy, but would keep Friuli and Aquileia under the Habsburg domain.As for the dalmatian properties, they had been long split between Bosnians, the Ragusans and Hungarians.The only thing left of Venice's corpse, was the small islands off the west Greek coast.The Austrians proposed giving the islands entirely to Greece, something which Greek diplomats were eager to accept, but the Italians and French placated their optimism by stating that the islands had been occupied by a joint Franco-italian force and were thus under their jurisdiction.Inevitably the Habsburgs backed down, and discussed a new arrangement, where the Ionian islands would be given to Greece, all except Corfu, which was to become an Italian protectorate until further notice.The Italians accepted, and thus Greece finally reunited with another part of its integral homeland.
Unexpected invasion[]
After the conclusion of the treaty, the Italian and French troops completely left Corfu, having thought they secured the island for themselves.But what they didn't anticipate is the reaction of Bulgaria, which was an enemy of Greece and had an interest in guaranteeing that the Greek army did not retake epirus, or utilize any newfound strategic position to gain leverage.Soon the Bulgarians would invade the small island of Corfu in Italian absence, implementing harsh martial law and terrorizing the inhabitants, keeping the island under garrison for the remainder of the war.This sparked diplomatic outrage with both Italy and Austria, which the Bulgarians tried hard to ignore, But little could be done, as the Italian government was not ready for another war after the exhausting battles fought at Trent and Padova.
400 Years of vengeance - The Sacking of Constantinople[]
The Greek army had large confidence in their abilities after the victories at Rusion and the treaty with the Italians, the Greeks were now confident that their 400 years of opression would finally be put to end, and their dear city would be liberated, General Sapountzakis made ready for the incursion into the Bosporus.The Russian warship, 'Ataman' made an appearance at the Sublime Porte, the Ottomans knew that the Greeks would make an attempt to take the city thanks to Russian and Bulgarian spywork.The Sultan made sure to ready the fortifications of the city, and urged Russia to enter peace negotiations with them and Bulgaria, as to prevent a total front collapse in case the Greeks managed to actually siege the capital.
The Calm Before the Storm - The Ottomans, reeling from the defeats in the Balkans and nervous over the recent arrival of the Russian cruiser Ataman in the Golden Horn, knew the Greeks were close.Little did they know however that the Greeks were already outside the city, stationed near Tekirdağ, the Greek army was preparing for an all out assault that would catch the Ottoman army off guard. Russian and Bulgarian spies had confirmed Greek movements in Eastern Thrace, but Sultan Abdülaziz believed he still had time. The Sublime Porte sent desperate envoys to Saint Petersburg and Sofia, hoping for ceasefires that would allow the empire to consolidate its forces. But time was a luxury they would not be granted.In secret, the Greek army, numbering nearly 145,000 seasoned men and supported by a modest but efficient artillery corps, had already crossed the Maritsa River. By May 28, they had quietly positioned themselves across the hills outside Silivri and Büyükçekmece, no more than a day's march from the city walls. Ottoman scouts failed to report the scale and speed of the maneuver.
The Assault - At dawn on June 2, 1870, under cover of thick coastal fog and naval artillery from the Italian-leased cruiser Aetos, the Greeks launched their surprise attack. The southern land walls, weakened and neglected for decades, buckled under the initial artillery barrage. Greek engineers, trained in modern siegecraft, quickly cleared breaches in the Theodosian Walls near the Gate of Silivri.Within hours, the Army of Sapountzakis had stormed into the western districts of the city. Urban fighting erupted in full chaos street by street, building by building. Ottoman resistance, led by the hastily assembled garrison under Derviş Pasha, was fierce but disorganized. The Sultan's decision to keep large forces in Anatolia, fearing another Greek landing near Izmit, proved fatal. There were not enough men left to save the capital.
The Sacking - The Greek High Command had initially issued orders forbidding looting. But once the Greek flag, and the banner of the Greek patriarchate, the double-headed eagle, was raised over Hagia Sophia on the morning of June 4, discipline began to falter. Cries of joy, mourning, and vengeance filled the streets. After four hundred years, the city had fallen, but the cost was grim.Old wounds opened. Orthodox clergy led processions through bloodied streets, chanting prayers once forbidden under Ottoman rule. Greek partisans, enraged by centuries of oppression, targeted Ottoman administrative buildings, mansions, and armories. Some Turkish civilians fled across the Bosporus in boats, others barricaded themselves in mosques and mansions. The city teetered between liberation and vengeance.Sapountzakis, to his credit, tried to restore order by June 5, threatening execution for further violence. Though much damage had been done, the burning of key neighborhoods, including the Phanariot district, was halted before it reached the Grand Bazaar or Topkapi Palace.Despite the damage control, many wealthy Greeks from the district would leave en masse to neighboring countries, the Phanariots, had actually enjoyed a relatively comfortable position under the careful watch of the Sublime Porte, managing to secure influencial administrative and other governmental positions, but now, with the Ottoman empire fading, their influence was shattered, and they blamed their own compatriots for their economic and societal woes.
The Golden gates of Constantinople
Aftermath - On June 7, 1870, Sultan Abdülaziz fled to Bursa, declaring the capital temporarily moved. But the world knew the truth: the heart of the Ottoman Empire had been pierced. Russian forces crossed the Danube days later, emboldened by the Greek triumph.Meanwhile Bulgaria would move to deal the finishing blow.On June 15, King Alexander II of Greece entered the city through the Golden Gate, his entrance choreographed to echo the triumphs of the old Byzantine emperors. As he knelt in Hagia Sophia, now restored as an Orthodox cathedral, bells rang across the city for the first time in centuries. The city was declared the new co-capital of the Hellenic Kingdom, alongside Athens.Though the peace that followed would be uneasy and temporary, for a moment, the Greeks had done the impossible: they had reclaimed Constantinople.The idea that their fatherland could be re-united once more, no longer seemed a dream — it was now the foundation of a new chapter in history.
2nd Treaty of Constantinople[]
The new Greece as outlined in the 2nd treaty of Cos/ople
The Treaty of Constantinople marked the formal cessation of hostilities following the fall of Constantinople to the Kingdom of Greece in June 1870. With Russian and Bulgarian forces making gains in the Balkans, and the Ottomans reeling from internal unrest and the loss of their capital, the Sublime Porte was compelled to negotiate. The treaty was mediated, in part, by Austria-Hungary, which sought to prevent full Russian hegemony in the Balkans.
With the fall of the Ottoman sultanate, and the dispotition of Abdülaziz by the Janissaries, the Ottomans would finally enter negotiatons with the Great Powers and Greece.
The following provisions and Territorial Changes would be outlined in the treaty:
- The Ottoman Empire officially recognized Greek sovereignty over the city of Constantinople, including the districts of Galata, Pera, Eyüp, and the Bosporus straits up to Anadolu Kavağı.Aswell as an occupation of the strip of land across the dardanelles, and the Eastern Bosporus region.
- The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople was reinstated as the preeminent Orthodox authority, under Greek protection.
- Eastern Thrace, up to the line of Çorlu–Lüleburgaz, was ceded to Greece.
- The Kingdom of Bulgaria gained full independence and annexed large swaths of land in the former Ottoman Empire.Although this did not settle the dispute over Epirus.
- The Ottomans gave concessions in Europe to the Russian Empire, including the Wallachian principalities as protectorates.
- The Dardanelles were to become a demilitarized zone, Free navigation was guaranteed for all merchant vessels, though warships required international authorization.
Status of Muslims in Constantinople
- The treaty guaranteed freedom of worship and property rights for Muslims remaining in Constantinople.
- However, a significant population exchange was organized over the following year, with thousands of Turkish-speaking Muslims resettled in Anatolia, and Greek-speaking Orthodox families from Asia Minor encouraged to settle in the city.
The treaty was seen as a major diplomatic and symbolic victory for the Greek kingdom and a crippling blow to Ottoman prestige.It reshaped the power dynamics of the Eastern Mediterranean, with Greece and Russia emerging as dominant players in Balkan politics.Western powers, especially Britain and France, expressed concern over Russia’s growing influence and Greece’s irredentist ambitions, leading to an early version of the “Eastern Question” resurgence in European diplomacy.
The death of King Alexander, a nation in mourning[]
“The Martyr of the City”
The euphoria of reclaiming Constantinople had not yet settled when tragedy struck the young Hellenic kingdom. On October 8, 1870, King Alexander II, at the age of 58.Died unexpectedly in Constantinople, casting a long shadow over the fledgling imperial revival of Greece, as he had no children to call heir of his own.
Circumstances of Death[]
The king had been inspecting reconstruction efforts at the Blachernae Palace, where the monarchy had begun restoring a new imperial residence. Despite concerns over lingering Ottoman sympathizers and political instability, Alexander refused to remain cloistered in the heavily guarded Greek quarter. “The city is free,” he said, “and I shall walk it as a free man.”
On the evening of October 7, the king reportedly met with Bulgarian delegates in Galata to discuss minority rights and Balkan cooperation. While returning by carriage across the Golden Horn, he was attacked near the old Roman aqueduct. Accounts vary: some suggest an Ottoman loyalist fired the fatal shot, others point to a conspiracy involving disgruntled royalists from Athens, fearing the king's growing autocratic tendencies and Constantinople-centric ambitions.He lingered through the night but succumbed to his wounds the following morning.
National Reaction and Mourning[]
The response was immediate and volcanic. Greeks across the Hellenic world wept in mourning.In Athens, churches tolled their bells for a full hour. In Constantinople, thousands gathered in Hagia Sophia to pay their respects. Newspapers dubbed him “The Martyr of the City”, likening him to a modern-day Constantine XI (the last Byzantine emperor who died defending the city in 1453).Sapountzakis, who had grown close to the king in the campaign, said at the funeral: “He lived not to rule, but to redeem. He gave us back the soul of a nation. And in death, he became its eternal guardian".His body was embalmed and interred with full honors in the restored Church of the Holy Apostles, the traditional resting place of the Byzantine emperors, newly rebuilt by royal decree after its centuries long destruction.
Aftermath: Political Crisis and Succession[]
The king’s sudden death triggered a political crisis. Alexander had no surviving sons;The regency was assumed by a coalition of military officers and senior ministers led by General Sapountzakis and Foreign Minister Dimitrios Deligiannis.
Two factions immediately formed:
- The Constantinopolitan Circle — Based in the city, they advocated for moving the capital to Constantinople permanently and pursuing further expansion into Asia Minor.And coronating a Kantakouzino relative as monarch.
- The Athenian Royals — Based in Athens, they feared overreach, financial ruin, and foreign entanglements. They saw Alexander’s death as a divine warning against imperial arrogance, and favoured a provisional regency until a new heir could be selected.
Tensions rose. Republican whispers circulated in parts of the mainland, while monarchist 'Rhomanists' in Constantinople began calling for the coronation of an alledged illegitiamate heir, Nikolaos Kantakouzenos as “Basileus of the Hellenes and Romans.”Meanwhile, European powers, particularly Britain and Germany grew wary of the instability, fearing Russian dominance via Greek proxies. The Ottomans, regrouping in Anatolia, interpreted the king’s death as an omen of reversal, and quietly began preparing for a potential counteroffensive.
Defusing the crisis - Coronation of Gregory Kantakouzenos[]
In the uncertain months following King Alexander II’s assassination, Greece teetered on the edge of a power vacuum. The regency council, led by General Sapountzakis, held the fragile realm together, but political divisions between Athens and Constantinople were deepening.The illegitimate heir, Prince Nikolaos, was deemed unfit to be crowned during such crisis. A new monarch was needed, one who could command loyalty from both the old Greek aristocracy and the Constantinopolitan elite.
Enter Gregory Cantacuzino, a Romanian noble of Phanariot descent, a member of the same dynasty as Alexander I.Though he had been a conservative statesman in Bucharest (under the name Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino), his Hellenic ancestry, Orthodox faith, and noble bearing made him a powerful symbolic choice. He was approached in secret by emissaries of the regency council in November 1870.He accepted, not merely as king, but as the "renewed steward of the Roman inheritance."
Preparations and Procession[]
The coronation was scheduled for January 6, 1871, the Feast of Theophany: a symbolic echo of Christ’s baptism and the divine manifestation of kingship.
A portrait of Gregory I
In the weeks leading up to the event, Hagia Sophia reclaimed and reconsecrated after four centuries was adorned with gold-leaf icons, rebuilt iconostases, and crimson banners bearing the double-headed eagle.Artisans restored mosaic images of Christ Pantocrator and the Virgin Eleousa, long plastered over in Ottoman times.Delegations from Russia, Bulgaria, Germany, France and Britain arrived in the city, recognizing that something historic was about to occur.On the morning of the coronation, Gregory rode through the Golden Gate of the old Theodosian walls on a white stallion, clad in deep blue velvet lined with gold thread.
The coronation took place at midday inside Hagia Sophia, packed with noblemen, officers, clergy, and foreign dignitaries. The Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos VI, now reinstated as the foremost religious authority in Orthodoxy, officiated the anointing.He raised the Crown of Constantine Palaiologos, forged anew in Athens from ancient Byzantine relics and modern Greek gold, and placed it on Gregory’s head with the words:
“In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, rise, Gregory, Basileus and Autokrator of the Greeks.”(A clear refrence to Ελέου Θεού, αυτοκράτορ των Ρωμαίων)
The congregation erupted into cries of:
“Ἄξιος! Ἄξιος! Ἄξιος!” (Worthy! Worthy! Worthy!)
A choir of 300 voices sang the imperial "Σῶσον, Κύριε, τὸν λαόν Σου" (O Lord, Save Thy People), and the bells of Constantinople, silenced for centuries, rang across the Bosporus once more.
Gregory adopted the regal title: “Gregorios I, By the Grace of God King of the Hellenes and Defender of the Rhomans.Though he declined to formally revive the title "Emperor of the Romans" to avoid provoking Europe, especially Germany and Italy.He created the Order of Saint Constantine the Great, awarding it to those who had served in the liberation of the City.To the world, it was a bold assertion: Greece no longer saw itself as a peripheral kingdom. It was now the guardian of the Eastern Roman legacy, standing once more in Constantinople, not as supplicant, but as sovereign, and many suspected that there was more to come..
Proclamation of the Kingdom of Rhomania[]
The selected flag for the state of Rhomania
As Gregory consolidated power, he surrounded himself with Byzantinist scholars, Orthodox clergy, and nationalist intellectuals. Patriarch Anthimos VI publicly began referring to Constantinople as “New Rome”, and Hagia Sophia became both royal chapel and symbol of restored imperial dignity.
Throughout 1871, administrative titles were changed:
- Ministers became “Logothetes”.
- The Greek army's branches was officially rebranded the Tagmata of Rhomania (battalions), and Themata of Rhomania (divisions)
- Gregory’s court stopped referring to Athens as the capital. Constantinople — Basileuousa, the Queen of Cities — had returned to the center of power.
December 1st, 1871.In a grand ceremony held in the Forum of Constantine, restored and lit with thousands of oil lanterns, King Gregory I proclaimed the re-founding of the Roman state under Hellenic sovereignty.Before an assembly of nobles, generals, clergy, and foreign observers, a gilded scroll was read aloud:
“Let it be known to all peoples of the world, that the flame of Rome, long thought extinguished, has not died, but slumbered.From the ashes of tyranny and the ruins of exile, it now rises, reborn in its rightful home.We, Gregory I, by divine providence and will of the people, proclaim the restoration of the Kingdom of Rhomania, heir of the Roman Empire, protector of the Orthodox faith, and sovereign over New Rome.”
He declared himself: “Gregory I, King of the Rhomans .”
The Aftermath - Reactions across Europe[]
Russia: To the eyes of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Greece was never meant to be a legitimate succesor nor continuation of the Eastern Roman legacy, Tsars, since the times of Peter the Great, always sougth after becoming the guardians of the city and the Bosporus.To the eyes of the Russian government, the Rhoman reincarnation was seen as nothing but a mere immitation, and a power display.The diplomats of the empire made no further move to accept or legitimize the rebirth.
Germany and Britain: A cold diplomatic response from Vienna and London did not raise any alarms, but signalled the message clearly, the HRE was not willing to recognise the Greeks as the succesors to the Roman Empire, afterall, they were already carrying the mantle of a twisted Roman legacy themselves, despite that, German public perception of Greece had grown favourable in the past years thanks to their efforts against Russia, standing defiant and siding with the Western powers, which proved that there was some benefit to cultivating an advantageous relationship with the mediterrennean power.
Italy: The Italians were by far the most outraged in Europe, the Kingdom which ahd claimed Roman legacy long before Greece's eventual independence, was less than excited to hear that Gregory was reforming Rome's eastern counterpart, as it would pose an issue of legitimacy for the young Italian nation..Italy had its own Orthodox minorities, and the notion of a "New Rome" emboldening Greek nationalism along its southern borders sparked panic. Italy recalled its ambassador to Constantinople and issued protests.
Despite the outrage, no power was willing to confront Rhomania militarily. The Ottomans were too weakened, and Europe was too fractured by internal strife and mutual suspicion.Gregory I immediately called for the drafting of a new constitution, one that would combine Byzantine ceremonial tradition with modern governance.The term “Rhomania” began to appear in all state documents, coins, and diplomatic seals. Greeks were now recognised not merely as Hellenes, but Rhomaioi.
The Ottoman Empire's response[]
The proclamation of the Kingdom of Rhomania on December 1st, 1871, was received in Bursa with fury, humiliation, and disbelief.For the Sultanate, which had barely managed to stabilize the empire after the Greek siege and the fall of Constantinople in 1870, the proclamation was not simply a political challenge, it was a personal and religious affront.Within hours, the Divan (Imperial Council) convened in emergency session. The Grand Vizier Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha, usually a moderate, reportedly slammed his hand upon the table and declared:
“This is not diplomacy. This is war dressed in robes of ceremony."
On December 4th, the Sublime Porte issued an ultimatum to the government in Constantinople :
An Immediate annulment of the proclamation of the "so-called Kingdom of Rhomania.The Restoration of Constantinople to Ottoman sovereignty.Withdrawal of Greek troops from Eastern Thrace and the Marmara coastline.Recognition of Ottoman sovereignty over remaining Muslim populations in the region.Rhomania, confident in its position and bolstered by unofficial British assurances, ignored the ultimatum. On December 6th, Gregory I’s foreign minister issued a response:
“We will not surrender what was bought with the blood of our fathers, consecrated by the prayers of our priests, and rightfully restored by the will of history.”
Despite their outrage, the Ottomans sought international mediation through the Austro-Hungarian Empire, hoping to form a coalition of states against Rhomania.However, Russia sent clear signals that any aggression toward Rhomania would be considered aggression against Orthodoxy, stopping short of formal alliance, but enough to caution Vienna.Britain and France, though alarmed, refused to intervene militarily. Both were recovering from economic and political instability.London especially feared dragging Jerusalem and Syria into a Mediterranean war.Prussia, having recently been exhalted amongst the European powers to a status of a secondary Great power, and focused on German unification, offered moral support to Rhomania as a way to distract the Austrians.The Ottomans found themselves isolated again, with few realistic allies.
Mobilization and Incidents leading to war[]
In December 8–15, 1871: Ottoman mobilization begins. Troops are dispatched from Anatolia to reinforce the front in Marmara. The Aegean Fleet is put on high alert.
December 13, 1871: Gregory I addresses the Rhomanian Senate, invoking the final fall of Rome in 1453.
December 15, 1871: The Ottoman Empire formally declares a state of war with the Kingdom of Rhomania.
4th Rhomano-Turkish war[]
This war would not be seen as the first war between the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Rhomania, but rather added to a long collection of conflicts between the Romans and Turks.Including the various conflicts between Romans and Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum, and the Ottomans during the medieval era.Now, that the Roman Empire had been reinstated, these wars against the Ottomans and Turkish succesor states, would be referred to as Rhomano-Turkish wars for the sake of continuity, and clarity.
As war broke out in mid-December 1871, both the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Rhomania prepared for a bitter winter campaign. Despite the season’s hardships, the Rhomanian high command chose to strike swiftly and with overwhelming force, hoping to capitalize on Ottoman disorganization and low morale after the loss of Constantinople.Rhomanian objectives for the first phase of the war were clear:
- Secure the Anatolian shore of the Sea of Marmara to protect the capital.
- Capture key cities like Iznik(Nicea), Izmit(Nicomedia), Bandırma(Panormos), and ultimately Bursa(Prousa).
- Cripple the Ottoman government’s authority by forcing them out of their temporary seat in Bursa.
The Marmara Drive – January 1872[]
With the eastern side of the bosporus secured, General Sapountzakis launched the “Marmara Drive”, a lightning campaign aimed at seizing the southern shore of the Sea of Marmara. This move was designed to disrupt Ottoman maritime logistics.Cutting off Bursa from naval support would be vital in crippling the Ottoman army, and encircling remaining Ottoman troops.Key Cities would be captured over the following months, including Panormos, taken on January 15 in a combined amphibious and land assault, crippling Ottoman resupply efforts to Bursa.
Now cornered and with their backs to the Uludağ Mountains, the Ottoman regime made its stand in Bursa, the ancient first capital of the Ottomans. Bursa had become a symbol of resilience since the fall of Constantinople, a last bastion of their pride.
Battle of Bursa (1872)[]
Rhomanian Forces numbered 48,000 men under Sapountzakis, including elite Constantinopolitan regiments and German-trained artillery units, Ottoman Forces included 44,000 men under Field Marshal Halil Şerif Pasha, composed largely of Anatolian conscripts and Janissary remnants.Rhomanian artillery bombarded the city walls. Ottoman troops attempt sorties but were repulsed.The Rhomanians breach the Yeşil District, forcing house-to-house combat.The Ottoman government evacuates to Eskişehir, as fires consume the central market district.Rhomanian infantry raise the golden cross banner over the Great Mosque of Bursa.
Collapse of the Ottoman Regime in Bursa[]
As Bursa fell, the symbolic impact was immense.The Janissary stratocracy based on backing from old Ottoman elite just had its illusion of invincibility shattered, loosing all popular support, and throwing the already fractured empire into ethno-religious chaos.This would give way to the rising stratocrats who were mostly comprised by Janissaries, and merchant elite.This faction would take advantage of the tenious situation to rise to prominence, and secure a position in the future of anatolia.
Conclusion, 1st treaty of Smyrna[]
The Orthodox World Rejoices, as the Greeks and Armenians welcome the Rhoman troops, the Russian newspapers declared this “the final eclipse of the Ottoman menace".Bulgaria on the other hand, shocked at the recent events, would begin preperations and fortify for its own inevitable conflict, as a clash over Epirus would be inevitable.As Anatolia Fractures, Anatolian provinces declared semi-autonomy, including Kurdish and Arab emirates in the east.A Turkish nationalist council formed in Ankara, declaring its opposition to both Sultan Murad and Rhomania.Armenians all over eastern anatolia would revolt, and soon, Armenia, Assyria, Kurdistan and the Pontic people's in northeast anatolia would all declare open revolt against the Ottomans.This would be the last decapitation needed, for the house of Osman to completely collpase, seeing no other choice, Murad embarked on a journey to Aceh, in order to flee the onslaught.In the empty power vaccum of anatolia, in the Ottoman's place would rise new states.
Cypriot Union[]
For over 300 years, Cyprus was under Ottoman Rule.Governed as a sanjak within the Eyalet of the Archipelago. While the Muslim Turkish population remained concentrated in urban centers like Nicosia and Famagusta, the Greek Orthodox majority, especially in the countryside, maintained strong cultural and spiritual ties to Hellenic heritage.Throughout the 19th century, nationalist sentiment among Greek Cypriots quietly was nurtured by the Orthodox Church, particularly under the leadership of the Archbishop of Cyprus, and bolstered by education and trade links with Athens and Crete. By the 1860s, Greek-Cypriot intellectuals increasingly spoke of "Enosis" (union with Greece, later Rhomania).
Following the 4th Rhomano-Turkish War and the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire rapidly disintegrated.Cyprus being distant from the Anatolian mainland and lightly garrisoned, fell into a state of administrative paralysis.In late 1871: Ottoman troops begin deserting their posts. Many flee to Anatolia or defect to local Turkish militias.By early 1872, power begins to shift to local authorities—primarily the Church of Cyprus, led by Archbishop Sophronios II, who assumed de facto leadership of the island’s Greek population.Muslim communities formed self-defense militias in Limassol and Nicosia, fearing reprisals and lawlessness.Sporadic violence erupts in mixed villages, though large scale bloodshed is largely avoided thanks to local clerical mediation.
Diplomatic Intervention[]
The Rhomanian Empire, freshly victorious and newly crowned in Constantinople, had no immediate military presence on Cyprus. However, as early as October 1872, it began exerting diplomatic and symbolic influence.The Archbishop of Constantinople, under imperial blessing, restored spiritual oversight over Cyprus.Rhomanian merchants and naval officers began appearing in Larnaca and Kyrenia, acting as informal envoys.In January 1873, the Rhomanian Eastern Mediterranean Fleet anchored off Limassol to ensure regional stability, although no move for direct annexation was made.
Great Britain had once occupied the island briefly during a war with the Egyptians and Ottomans.But was still expressing opinions that the island should become an independent state under its supervision, to ensure the stability of its subjects in the middle east and secure the Suez canal.Cyprus started to become more of a point of interest, and also contention between Rhomania and Britain.Whilst the Greek population desired union with Greece, they also feared a reprisal from the Turkish muslim communities, at the same time Rhomania was hesitant, aware of Britain's stance on the issue.However, Britain's own conflcits, the War of English succesion prevented any significant action from being taken regarding Cyprus.Rhomania proposed an exchange of diplomatic and military support for Britain to allow the annexation of Cyprus to take place, the British, seeing it as an opportunity to guarantee Rhomania as a future ally, British diplomats would agree to the proposal, and Rhomania would begin to support the British in their war effort from 1875 until the end.
On April 23 , 1873, symbolically aligning with the traditional date of the Greek decleration of Independence—the Council of Notables and Clergy in Nicosia formally declared the dissolution of Ottoman rule on Cyprus and petitioned Emperor Gregory I for union with the Rhomanian Kingdom.The king accepted the petition within weeks.Cyprus was designated the Autonomous Eparchy of Kypros, under the administration of a Doux (Governor) appointed by Constantinople.The Church of Cyprus retained its traditional privileges and autonomy, incorporated into the Rhomanian ecclesiastical hierarchy.
The Turkish Cypriot Minority responses ranged from apprehension to outright flight.A significant portion emigrated to the still-fracturing Turkic state in Anatolia.Those who remained were promised religious freedom and land protections under the Imperial Charter of Provincial Rights (enacted later in 1875), but political influence sharply declined.
Rhomania in the Anatolian Wars[]
The victorious campaigns of the Rhoman army in the following Anatolian wars (1872-1882) would prove Rhomania's importance in the world stage as a significant regional player.The wars would result in most of asia minor falling back into Greek control, the eradication of the Ottoman and Turkish threat, and the beginning of a new age of international relations, including much hostility between Rhomania, Russia and France.This would eventually lead Rhomania to side with the Imperial Powers in the Great War.
Rhomanian anatolian expansion
Rhomano-Turkish wars (5th-8th) Territorial changes[]
The Roman State would expand significantly through the series of campaigns and wars waged on the Anatolian polities, most importantly the Regions of Ionia, Bythinia, Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, Seleuceia, Pamflagonia, Pontus,Anatolikon, Armeniakon, Capadoccia and other Eastern peripheries would be obtained through military means or diplomatic expansion (as in the case of the Pontic Republics, Phocea and the Circassians).
The Karamanlides[]
Tensions inside the Capadoccian eparchy caused much infighting between the majority Turkish population, the turkish speaking Greek population, other Greek muslims and the Capadoccian Christians.As a solution to this social issue, Chancellor Deligiannis suggested the re-organisation of Capadoccia into a Protectorate of Karamanlida, a Greco-Turkish Capadoccian autonomous state, under the soveirgn protection of Rhomania.This would help defuse the tensious situation and ease administrative stress, as it re-introduced self governance for the Turkish villages, and Greek Karamanlid villages.The move was seen as a betrayal by the Capadoccian clergy, which expected full authority over the Capadoccian eparchy.But the Greek politicians in Constantinople started to view them as adverseries, due to their alignment with Russia and the Moscow church.
The integration effort[]
From its multiple conquests and victories in the anatolian wars, the Rhoman state found itself in bureacratic inflation and overextension.The country's dated administrative offices and levers were unable to handle the vast influx of people coming into their database.It did not ease the situation that, not only where the new citizens of Rhomania minorities(?) that did not share the common faith, but it had now received a Turkish population equal to that of its native Greek one.
In a persuit to prevent societal discohesion and outright collapse, the administration chose to keep the old Ottoman-Islamic legislation in areas that were inhabited by Turks, and everything beyond the marmara, with the exception of a few large Greek-majority cities, like Smyrna.The Romaic-Greek legislation and homesteading laws were to be implimented slowly and through a slow process, as to not disturb the unstable aspects of the already fragile society they had in hand.
Turkish citizens were awarded partial citizen, and had the option of full citizenship, under the condition that they converted to Orthodox Christianity.Whilst this policy was seen as controversial, especially by the West European nations, and the country's liberal political factions.Despite opposition, the reform proved fruitful, by 1899, more than a few hundred villages in coastal and western anatolia had converted to christianity.
Law applied differently, split into 2 sectors, one for the Rhoman-judicial system, which was applied to Rhoman orthodox christian citizens, and the second: created specifically for the Muslim minority, applied sharia law and courts for the muslims to be judged by their communities appropriately.
Economic integration[]
After the integration of large Greek-populated anatolian cities into Rhomania-proper.The country experienced a small period of economic wonder.The urban class of Smyrna, Trebizond, Amissos, Makre, and various others, multiplied the country's population, and brought new financial prospects.The economic sectors of the Tobacco, olive and wine industries saw a small decline, but other sectors - such as timber, textile and silk production, mainly because of Turkish manpower and specialized personal, that the economy desperately needed.Textiles saw a rising dominance in the country's export's, specifically to Persia and the general east.
The economy grew to encompass all sorts of goods, and the corridor to persia, the levant and mesopotamia, opened up the nation's outlets towards countries that it had never traded with before, like China, Japan and Korea.It became a truly global economy, participating not only in the local European market - but the entire international one.Products from Rhomania could be found in key international hubs all over, Triest, London, Petersburg, Hellena, Corpus Cristi, Lawrence, Bombay and Peking.Thanks to tbe involvement of internal trading leagues and companies specialising in the global financial sector, the country even saw the trading of stocks.
The 2nd rebirth of Constantinople[]
Controrary to popular belief- The fall of Constantinople of 1453 did not bring much devastation to the fallen basileuousa, By the end of the 13th century, constantinople was a shell of its former self, and it took years of Turkish expendetures to elevate it back into its dominant status, then again- the city never really recovered, from 1204.Mehmet II's decision to transfer the capital from Edirne to the newly captured city came with a benefit: ottoman investment and development- the so called 'Rebirth of Constantinople'.
It was unsuprising that by the tail of the late 19th century, Constantinople had declined, alongside the rest of the Ottoman Empire.The city had no substuntial industry, and lacked critical infastructure, Greek politicans jokingly said upon the moval of the capital away from Athens: "We have moved out of poor old Athens, and moved into another, even bigger and poorer Athens" To critique its degrading situation and government decisions.King Alexander II had made plans for a renewal of the city and investment planning, However these were never put into practice as he passed away before putting any policy into effect- In his place, Grigory took the challenge to renovate the stagnating city, and flourish it with new life, as it was the symbol of the new empire he had in the making.
Investments were handed out to local businesses and corporations in order to renovate degrading Greek buildings in historic Cosntantinopolitan suburbs, such as the old Agora (Mese), Chalcedon and Pera.With help from phanariot elite and bishops, he also managed to make room for a budget specifically allocated to the renovation of Christian churches, Orthodox and Catholic.The Armenian community of Constantinople put aside their differences for the cause of restoring the city, contributing to the coffers of the renovation project, provided with the condition that their Apostolic Armenian churches would also see investment and reconstructuring, which had long deteriorated under Ottoman neglect in the last century.Thus the programme saw some initial success, After agitation and negotiation for foreign investment, the government managed to scrape together resources for rebuilding the new capital.What truly contributed to Constantinople's renewal was the arrival of immigrants from Central Greece and rich families from the Aegean, previously Constantinopolitan but exiled due to war and deportation, Now they could be restored to their original locations.Anatolian Greeks also immigrated to Constantinople, although to a smaller scale and much later.
By 1900, Constantinople had been partially restored to its old glory, although the city had a mesely 500.000 in population, and was far from industrialised or economically dominant in the Mediterrenean.
The Early 20th century[]
Queen Maria of Rhomania
The coming of the new century posed new problems for Rhomania.Many thought this would be the Golden century for their country, a time for reclaimation, and empowerment.Many looked towards the north, specifically Epirus, where they had once been humiliated by their Bulgarian rivals.These nationalist elements calling for the reunification with their epirote neighbors, would grow increasingly influencial.Social and political clubs spread anti-bulgarian sentiment and radicalised younger generations, Soon Turkish citizens would be continiously harassed in the cities, and an anti-islamic rhetoric dominated popular opinion - Only worsening the integration effort, and fuelling societal anxiety.
The most shocking event with the turn of the century, would be the abdication of King Gregory I mainly due to health complications and old age, the monarch had been bedritten and unable to attend to his duties, his son, Carol -was too young to ascend to the throne, and thus, Queen Maria was to rule as active regent, from 1901 until a new king could be crowned.Maria, a staunch nationalist and believer in dreams of restoring the antique roman glory of their nation, became a rallying cry for the imperialist and nationalist elements of the country.The military grew wary of pacifist agitation, fearing a Bulgarian invasion, and the complete dismantlement of their nation from the inside, pointing towards subversive elements that could facilitate it, Turks, Jews and Slavs became targets of attacks, for example the Thessaloniki synagogue burnings of 1902, which saw the city's majority jewish population under scrutiny.Bulgarians were displaced from their home villages by citizen-band militia without informing local authorities.
The 1903 Cretan uprising and the Military clique[]
Crete, an island which had been with Greece since the nation's conception, had become an inseperable part of the country, and staunch bastion of the Greek conservative culture and political element.With the rise of Greece to geopolitical prominence and its reformation into Rhomania, the island became increasingly neglected - The country had to spend more and more on integration of its giant anatolian provinces, and the Constantinopolitan capital only further alienated the mainland Greeks and the Aegean from the country's political mechanism.The Cretans saw their population being overtaxed, underfunded and constantly under pressure, mainly due to their significant muslim population, about 200k muslim Turks had settled Crete, the infamous 'Tourkokritikoi' and were 1/3 of the island's population.Since the creation of the Cretan state, and the Cretan parliament, the Turkish population had fought alongside in the independence struggle with their Greek neighbors, and for that had been awarded significant autonomy and political representation, Muslims had a say in parliament, could vote and elect their own members of parliament, 67 seats were allocated to muslims alone.This became a point of contension within Constantinpolitan military, nationalist and imperialist circles, the elite of the marble city saw Crete as a backwards, overly relaxed and rural province that threatened their nation's internal security, mainly because of the Turkish minority that had been awarded what they described as "Political overrepresantation".
The Military clique: A group of influencial politicians and military officers, mainly from Constantinople. Athens and Crete itself, formed a political faction with the key objective of modernising the country and centralising it under 1 authority, priority for now was dismantling the Cretan autonomous parliament, and transforming the province into one of many, Greek-dominated themes.Their goal was to gain favour with the Queen, and eventually force their hand onto parliament, this way, Crete would have no choice but to accept Constantinople's demands and dismantle their parliament, which would then enable politically charged members of the clique to make their way into public security in Crete, and begin implementing discriminatory laws towards the Turks.
Protests and Crackdowns[]
Painting of the Cretan revolutionaries
In July 1903, news of the decree reached Crete. Massive joint demonstrations erupted across the island—Christian and Muslim communities marched side by side in Heraklion, Rethymno, and Chania, waving banners reading:
“Crete for Cretans – Not for Bureaucrats!”
“We Fought Together – We Will Not Be Divided!”
The Military Clique responded by dispatching Imperial Constabulary and Marines to “restore order.” What followed was a brutal crackdown:
- Turkish neighborhoods were raided on suspicion of “separatist organizing.”
- Muslim MPs were arrested or disappeared, accused of conspiring with “Ottoman agents.”
- A protest in Heraklion turned into a massacre when soldiers opened fire on demonstrators, killing 76 civilians—many of them Muslim elders and Greek priests who had been mediating.
The Revolt ensues: That massacre was the final straw.By August 1903, a full-blown island-wide uprising erupted. The Cretan Volunteer Defense Council was formed, uniting disillusioned Cretan soldiers, peasant militias, Turkish veteran fighters, and even a few disaffected Rhoman officers stationed on the island. Their demands were clear:
- Immediate reversal of the Act of Thematic Realignment and Restoration of the Parliament
- Protection of Muslim rights under the old charter
- Expulsion of the gendarmes
They fortified mountain passes, sabotaged rail and telegraph lines, and began targeting military barracks. The mountainous interior of Crete became a guerrilla stronghold, with the flag of the old Cretan Republic once again flying from makeshift command posts.
The Rhoman state faced a crisis. The Anatolian campaigns were already stretching the military thin, and Constantinople’s political elite was split:
- Some feared that continued violence would alienate Anatolian Muslims, whose loyalty was crucial to the empire’s eastern frontier.
- Others demanded a swift and crushing response to avoid appearing weak.
Constantinople engulfed in Political chaos[]
Ultimately, the Queen intervened— with an approach focused towards pragmatism. In October 1903, she called for a “temporary suspension” of the Act and offered negotiations. In reality, this was a face-saving measure while her government reassessed the risk of civil war spreading to the Aegean.The uprising formally ended in December, with a fragile truce: The Cretan Parliament was partially restored, though now under heavy oversight.The revolt proved a crucial success for the liberal elements of the country's politicaal sector.The uprising became a symbol of pan-communal resistance—a rare episode of Christians and Muslims fighting side-by-side not against each other, but for shared autonomy.It set off a broader debate within Rhomania about the rights of minority communities, provincial autonomy, and the limits of imperial centralization.
The Military Clique only grifted further into radicalism, its failure would haunt later military interventions.This only exaggerated the political tensions in the capital, and would ultimately lead, to insurrection.
The 1909 Palace Coup[]
Panagiotis Danglis (1911)
As the political situation was growing increasingly out of hand, violence erupted in the streets- but not only in Constantinople, but also major cities all across the nation, Soon Athens, Larissa, Thessaloniki, Chania and Smyrni would experience a heatwave of riots and public conflict, as locals fought with the police, and amongst themselves over the most insignificant of reasons.Communities formed militia bands that terrorized ghettos and minority settlements, Turks in Cosntantinople grew increasingly paranoid, pushing them more and more towards the Islamic ulemma and isolating them from public life, the nation's administration was at a standstill.The military forces were fearful that external threats would capitalize on Rhomania's misfortunes and invade.
The stroke that broke the camel's back was the January 11 riots.In a plurality of the nation's cities, these protests would spark fierce popular resistance against the government.The military clique, under the management of charismatic and pragmatist leader, Panagiotis Danglis- and his associate, Alexandros Papagos, marched to the Royal Palace in Constantinople, and declared that the East was under military rule.Martial law was imposed on major cities, including the Capital and Athens, and police was ordered to crack down on trade syndicates and unions, as well as political formations deemed 'too radical' by the administration.The Queen collaborated with the military clique rather than condemning them- she took an active position in leadership during the following years of Junta rule.This however, would not re-determine the country's diplomatic outlook, as Moscow hopefully predicted, but rather- only drove it further into the Anglo camp.
Rhomania during the Great War[]
Diplomatic chaos[]
When the Great War broke out, on April 5, 1915, In the beginning, the General assembly informed Queen Maria that the nation had the ultimate duty to abstain from conflict and only work with all its efforts along with Britain for peace mediation.The Queen however doubled down, insisting that the Imperial Powers would win the war, and that Rhomania would be in immediate danger of a Bulgarian invasion, Being allied with the Continental Entente, and Russia, an adversery power with interests in Anatolia.That observation was true, But to the opinion of the General staff and de-facto co-ruler, Field Marshall Danglis, Rhomania's outdated military equipment, lack of coordination with allied powers like Germany and Britain, would lead to a quick capitulation and fierce pushback from the Entente in case they begun an offensive war against Bulgaria.
In April 21, the delegation from Rhomania to London would declare that "It is of upmost importance to maintain international stability, and to tread carefully for an unstable nation like ours, Rhomania is a young power, not an unpredictable player as you may know, we are fully commited to the Imperial Powers cause, However we protest any initiations of hostility against Bulgaria and her allies in Moscow and Paris, Lest we find ourselves fighting enemies with double the size of our armies in each front."
Alexandros papagos portrait 1930s
Dissapointed but not suprised, Emperor Sigismund of England decided to leave Rhomania alone, but continued to soft-pressure the country, by occasionally sending letters indicating 'lack of confidence' in the Military clique's leadership, and sent submarines to patrol the coast of the Dodecanese.Germany meanwhile, also saw Rhomania as a potential ally that would eliviate some of the pressure Bulgaria had mounted on Hungary's border, and help create a distraction for the Russian army.
Palace schism[]
Military plans to invade Rhomania were leaked to General Papagos by the British intelligence agency, indicating that Bulgaria was planning an assault on the Thracian front by the end of the year, in December of 1915.Papagos ordered an official mobilization of the Greek themes to the Epirus-Thrace border, and begun efforts to pressure Military clique staff to intervene on behalf of the Imperial Powers, he had effectively sided with the Queen against acting ruler, Danglis.This schism would effect the country's political landscape, as the Imperial palace went into paralysis, the country's military leadership was split into 2 camps, The Royalist-Interventionists and the Anti-Interventionists, the "Oudeteroi" (Neutrals).Danglis issued Papagos to step down in favour of a pro-neutrality General by the name of Ioannis Metaxas, who led a group of right-wing militia known as the 'Akritoi'.
Queen Maria and general Papagos assembled a force in Constantinople in order to enact a counter-coup against Danglis, By the time they had made it to the Palace where he resided, Panagiotis Danglis had already regrouped his own troups and fled to the other side of the Bosporus, in the city of Chalcedon.Knowing that they could not silently capture Danglis without utilising full out force, Papagos negotiated with the Naval forces for their loyalty.The plan was to prepare a naval invasion across the Bosporus from Constantinople to Chalcedon, in order to attack Danglis before he could assemble enough forces to begin a full-out civil war.Spies were sent to the city to assure the Field Marshal's pressence, and to report the Anti-Interventionists moves to the Queen.
In May 30, the operation to capture the Field Marshal's base would initiate.A group of officers loyal to Danglis had managed to secure the East coast of the Marmara Sea, and had captured significant cities including Nicomedia and Nicea.But the May Mosque burning in the Turkish quarter of Chalcedon, which made up a singificant third of the city's population, would spark Turkish and Muslim reprisals against the Military garisson.Throwing Danglis' staff into dissaray, as they had to put down riots in the cities.This gave a significant preparation time advantage to the Royalists.
The invasion underway[]
One day later, the plan to capture Chalcedon begun, the Royalists assembled a force near the Hellispont, and put troups along the Bosporus coast, the submarine detached with a group of troups set to infultrate the Field Marshal's camp departed from the port during the midnight of May 31st, and make its way during the Morning of June 1st.
With the troops in dissaray, the disorganised Anti-interventionists could not predict the invasion force, and were caught off guard, At 5:00 am, fighting took place between a disgruntled garisson in Chalcedon and the Royalist forces.The battle concluded with a success for the royalists, as they managed to take Chalcedon's Town Hall, capturing Danglis and forcing him to resign, he would be provisionally put under house arrest.Ioannis Metaxas who was stationed at Nicea, would surrender his de-jure position as acting Military clique co-director to Alexandros Papagos the day after,His decision to disavow political bipolarism, guaranteed that Rhomania would not experience a civil war.Now, with Queen Maria and General Papagos at the helm, Rhomania would embark on a diplomatic effort to get English-German leases, and intervene in the war on behalf of the Imperial Powers.
Rhomania's entry into the Great War[]
Poster celebrating the Union between the Dodecanese and mainland Greece
Bulgarian Invasion[]
Even though the military staff was expecting a possible attack from the Kingdom of Bulgaria, nobody predicted that the Bulgarians had revised their plans, and were planning to attack 1 month sooner, with support from their Russian Allies.This threw the Sublime Porte in dissaray, Queen Rhomania, urged for the Military officers to pursue negotiations with the Imperial powers, and to enter the war immediately, before Rhomania was attacked.The military staff obliged.By January 1916, the negotiations between the Imperial Powers and Rhomania, for its entry into the alliance ended with a rousing success.The delegates would sign the Rome decleration, the terms for Rhomania would be incredibly beneficial, as Britain pledged the Dodecanese (until then controlled by the Knights of Rhodes, under the protection of England) to be given to Rhomania.And while the country would enter into the Alliance, It would be allowed to not declare any hostilities towards the German Empire and its allies.
Bulgarian forces begun pushing through macedonia, the defensive line covered for most of the Central flank, but Epirus in the West was vulnerable, and the Bulgarians knew this was something they could take advantage of.With a French submarine heading towards the Aegean, the Bulgarian push towards Thessaly came in late January.
Cyrenaica Campaign[]
Rhomanian expeditionaries were sent to assist British Africa's 4th army corp, a small battallion of about 14.000 soldiers, that would help the spearhed through Egyptian Cyrenaica, opening up the front towards Egypt proper.This was a strategic move, as the Sublime Porte hoped for an African concession in the form of Cyrenaica by the British after a victory in the War.
The Anatolian Front[]
An expected Russian invasion of Georgia which came right after Rhomania's entry into the Great War, put pressure on the General Staff of the country, Not only would they have to mobilise against Armenia, but match the increasing reinforcements from their Russian Allies.The Russian army speedily captured almost all of the Georgian urban centers and after its capitulation, moved south to assist Armenia.The Rhomanian army stationed at Trebizond, Sevasteia and Capadoccia prepared to cross the Armenian border.
Syrian incursion[]
Levantine Theater campaigns 1916-18
The Kurdish moblisation across the southern border triggered Rhoman security, The British, who were supposed to have their Syrian Dominion covered, failed to secure a garisson in the cities of Antioch and Aleppo, which quickly fell into chaos and rebellion.The Syrian National Revolutionary Front, an organisation composed of Syrian independence activists, Islamic Mujahedeen and National Socialist revolutionary militia, assembled in Aleppo under the watchful eye of Kurdistan and the Entente, to proclaim their country's seperation from the British Dominion, and join the war effort against the Imperial Powers.Their strongholds, were quickly secured by a joint Armenian and Kurdish expedition, Hence the Rhoman army had to diverge a portion of its anatolian forces to guarantee that the front wouldn't fall in the south. The Rhoman army quickly crushed a small contingent force of 7.000 Kurds and 4.500 Syrian troops stationed at Antioch with 13.000 troops, which hoisted the Red flag on the antique Antioch Citadel.The rest of the army moved to secure a fallback line in case the Kurds tried an incursions on the other side of the river.The General staff prepared a rough plan to secure the Syrian Coastline, but not the Internal countryside, in hopes that they could build a safe supply region for the British to landfall in, and pick up their fight from there.
The Fall of Italy, and the Sicilian campaign[]
By 1917, the Kingdom of Italy had already spent two years locked in intense fighting along the Alpine Front. Facing the combined weight of the French Empire and Spanish Empire armies, the overstretched Italian lines around the Po Valley were crumbling.Northern industrial cities: Turin, Milan, and Genoa, were sustaining the war effort but also suffering from food shortages, strikes, and demoralization. The French, emboldened by their successful Rhine offensives, launched Operation Dauphiné, a massive assault across the Western Alps aimed at cracking the Italian northern front and cutting the country in half.
The collapse came swiftly. In July 1917, French artillery shattered the Alpine fortifications. By September, Milan had fallen after a week-long urban battle. Turin and Genoa capitulated within days as Italian forces retreated southward in disarray. The Kingdom’s leadership, under mounting internal pressure, relocated its royal court and government from Milan to Naples.
Southern Bastion: Allied Intervention (1918–1919): The fall of the north triggered an emergency Allied Mediterranean strategy. The British Admiralty feared that control of the Po Valley would allow the Entente to project force into the Tyrrhenian Sea. In response: A joint Anglo-Rhoman fleet was dispatched to secure the Strait of Messina.Rhoman expeditionary regiments, drawn from the Anatolian and Aegean commands from the Kingdom were landed in Sicily to fortify the island against Spanish amphibious operations.British colonial regiments from Egypt and Malta joined the defense of southern ports.
The Battle of the Tyrrhenian Approaches in early 1918 saw Spanish forces attempt to land on Sicily’s western coast. Rhoman forces, using entrenched coastal fortifications, repelled the invasion with heavy losses on the Spanish side, ensuring Sicily remained under Allied control.Despite holding Sicily and parts of Campania, the Allies could not mount an effective counteroffensive to retake the north. The frontline hardened around the Garigliano River, creating a de facto partition of Italy: North: Under French military occupation, reorganized into collaborationist administrative zones, Sardinia and Corsica were put under by a Spanish-French condominium command.While the South remained nder loyal Italian royal authority and Allied military protection.
The strategic importance of Sicily grew exponentially: British and Rhoman engineers transformed the island into a fortified naval hub, allowing them to control access to the central Mediterranean, countering Spanish and French fleets.
Russian breakthrough in Anatolia[]
Strategic Context: By early 1918, after the fall of mainland Greece and a series of brutal battles along the Caucasian frontier, the Eastern Front between Russia and Rhomania had stabilized roughly along the Erzurum–Sivas line.Rhoman forces, though disciplined, were overstretched: simultaneously defending eastern Anatolia, the Black Sea coast, and sending reinforcements to the southern Balkan front.The Russian Empire, despite being bloodied on the Prussian front, retained a powerful Caucasus Army with superior logistics through Armenia and northern Persia.With French Empire pushing into Greece and Bulgaria holding the southern Balkans, the Entente planned a coordinated assault: Russia in the east, Bulgaria in the south, France in the west.
The Russian General Staff believed that a breakthrough toward Ankara could cripple Rhomania’s ability to wage war in Europe, forcing it to divert forces from the Aegean.Thus begun The Winter Preparations (December 1918–March 1919) for their next offensive.Unlike previous, piecemeal attacks, the Russian offensive was meticulously planned. General Nikolai Alekseyev assembled the 1st Caucasian Front Army, nearly 300,000 men—including:
- Elite Siberian and Don Cossack cavalry
- Heavy artillery regiments with newly arrived 203 mm siege guns
- Armenian auxiliary brigades familiar with the terrain
- Armored trains and early mechanized supply columns (a Russian innovation in the Caucasus)
Rhomanian intelligence noted the buildup but underestimated the scale, believing it to be a feint designed to distract from the Balkan front.The Erzurum Plateau, held by Rhoman 3rd and 5th Armies (approx. 220,000 men), became the primary defensive bastion of eastern Anatolia. The defensive line was fortified but thinly manned compared to the Russian front.
The Opening Assault – Battle of Erzurum (April–May 1919): The offensive opened on 10 April 1918 with a 48-hour artillery bombardment on Rhoman trenches east of Erzurum, supported by Russian aerial reconnaissance balloons and limited fighter escorts.On 12 April, Cossack cavalry and Armenian light infantry assaulted the southern flank near Çolig, while regular infantry stormed the mountain passes north of Erzurum. Despite fierce resistance, the Rhoman 5th Army line was breached on 18 April after a concentrated artillery barrage collapsed the right wing.Russian casualties were estimated to be 30.000, whilst Rhoman casualties mounted to roughly 25.000 including 15,000 captured.Erzurum fell on 22 April 1919 after brutal street fighting. This marked the first major Russian victory in Anatolia since the early months of the war.
Deep Push – The Sivas Corridor (June–August 1919): With the fall of Erzurum, Russian forces poured through the highlands, advancing rapidly westward along the main rail and supply routes. The terrain favored the Russians, Russian 2nd Corps advanced toward Tokat and Amasya, threatening the Black Sea flank.The main force advanced through Erzincan and Refahiye toward Sivas.
The First Battle of Sivas (July 1919) was the bloodiest engagement of the campaign. Rhomanian 2nd Army attempted to make a stand at the fortified city, but Russian siege artillery and encirclement tactics broke their defenses after three weeks of fighting.On 2 August 1919, Sivas fell. Russian forces now stood at the gates of the central Anatolian basin.
The Kızılırmak Line – Rhoman Defensive Stand[]
Recognizing the danger of losing the Anatolian heartland, the Rhoman High Command ordered a strategic withdrawal to the Kızılırmak (Halys) River, forming a new defensive perimeter stretching from Çorum to Kayseri. This river served as a natural defensive barrier, slowing the Russian advance and buying time for reinforcements from western Anatolia and the Aegean.Fortifications were rapidly built along the key fords and crossings.Rhoman engineers flooded sections of the plains, turning them into marshes.Armored trains and artillery batteries were concentrated on the Ankara–Samsun rail axis.
Russian forces attempted a crossing near Yozgat in mid-October but were repelled with heavy losses. By November, both sides dug in — creating a frozen front that would remain static for nearly two years.
Operations Overview[]
| Date | Event | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| April 1919 | Battle of Erzurum | Russian victory, breakthrough |
| July 1919 | Battle of Sivas | Russian capture of central Anatolia |
| Oct 1919 | Battle of the Kızılırmak Crossings | Rhoman defensive victory, Russian advance stalls |
| Nov 1919 | Winter Front | Stalemate established along Kızılırmak |
Major Yugoslav-French Offensive[]
By 1918, the southern Balkan front had become a critical flank in the wider war.Rhomania, controlling both Eastern Macedonia and Thessalonica, served as a vital southern bastion for the Imperial Powers, shielding the Aegean from Entente encroachment.South of the Rhoman defenses, in mainland Greece, Thessaly and Central Greece remained, but with its military overstretched — committed both to coastal defense and a tenuous mountainous front along Macedonia’s northern border, and the Russian threat in the East.Meanwhile, the Yugoslav Kingdom of Bulgaria, under pressure from the Entente war command, prepared a major coordinated offensive to crush Greek defenses and sever Rhomania from its western allies. French forces, recently redeployed from the Italian and Rhine fronts, bolstered the Balkan army with artillery, aerial squadrons, and experienced officers.
The Vardar Offensive (March–May 1918): The offensive began at dawn on 15 March 1918, when a Franco-Bulgarian artillery barrage targeted Greek and Rhoman positions along the Vardar line north of Skopje and Gevgelija. Over 500 heavy guns — many French — pounded the entrenched positions for two days, softening the mountainous defenses.On 18 March, Bulgarian shock troops, supported by elite French alpine units, stormed the Belasica (Beles) and Nidze (Voras) mountain ranges, taking advantage of a poorly fortified Greek sector between the Axios and Doiran sectors. Despite fierce resistance from local Greek divisions, the defenders were overwhelmed by superior artillery coordination and infiltration tactics pioneered on the Western Front.
The Battle of Doiran Heights was a turning point: a crucial Greek artillery battery was encircled and overrun, allowing the Entente to push deep into the Vardar valley. By early April, the northern Macedonian front had collapsed, and Bulgarian columns began a rapid southward advance.
Fall of Mainland Greece[]
Encirclement and the Fall of Central Greece (June–October 1918): The Bulgarians and French advanced in a pincer movement.The Western Pincer: Bulgarian infantry and cavalry advanced through Florina and Kozani, threatening Epirus and western Thessaly.Eastern Pincer: French mechanized columns (using early armored cars and mobile artillery) advanced down the Axios toward Larissa.
Greek regular units, undertrained and poorly equipped compared to the Franco-Bulgarian force, were forced to abandon defensive positions in Thessaly after suffering heavy losses at the Battle of Larissa (July 1918), where a daring French flanking maneuver broke through Greek lines and captured the city after three days of urban fighting.By October 1918, central Greece was overrun, and the command in Athens was evacuated south toward the Peloponnese.The Allies hoped to establish a new defensive perimeter along the Corinth Isthmus — a natural chokepoint to protect southern Greece and Aegean supply routes.
Rhomania and its managed fronts by 1918
The Battle of the Isthmus and Allied Retreat (Winter 1918–1919): Recognizing the strategic importance of Peloponnesian control, the French pushed hard to break the Corinth Isthmus defenses before winter.A massive artillery bombardment, combined with amphibious landings by Bulgarian marines near Patras (coordinated with French Mediterranean forces), sought to cut off remaining Greek forces.However, here the Franco-Bulgarian advance met its first real setback. Rhoman reinforcements, redeployed from Anatolia, arrived to support the Greek defenders. Rhoman engineers rapidly fortified the Isthmus, turning it into a fortress line with barbed wire, trenches, and machine gun nests.The First Battle of Corinth (December 1918) resulted in a brutal stalemate. Bulgarian forces suffered catastrophic casualties against entrenched defenders. The offensive stalled, and the French diverted more troops to maintain their hold over central Greece rather than push further south.
By mid-1918, most of mainland Greece excluding Thessalonica and Eastern Macedonia was under Entente occupation. Athens fell without major resistance in November 1918, following the surrender of the royal garrison, But in the Athenian radio broadcoast shortly after the fall of the city, a new war was announced, as the people were told to pick up arms, and guard themselves against the invaders, turning into a symbolic figure of resistence within the broader Greek world.
The Latin Empire[]
The French administration installed a puppet Latin Empire in Athens to control the occupied territory, but resistance groups, loyalist royal forces, and Rhoman special units continued to operate in the Peloponnese and Aegean islands.French forces occupied Athens and central Greece, consolidating their supply lines through the Vardar corridor.Bulgarian units spread thin, garrisoning key mountain passes and rail junctions.
Operations Overview[]
| Date | Event | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| March 1918 | Vardar Offensive begins | Franco-Bulgarian breakthrough |
| April 1918 | Battle of Doiran Heights | Collapse of Greek northern defenses |
| July 1918 | Battle of Larissa | Central Greece falls |
| December 1918 | First Battle of Corinth | Entente advance stalls |
| February 1919 | Fall of Athens | Provisional Entente government installed |
| 1919–1920 | Occupation period | Resistance, fortified Thessalonica front holds |
Battle of Sivas - Russian disaster[]
this would be one of the most decisive campaigns of the Great War, a turning point on the Eastern Anatolian. front comparable to the real-life Battle of Stalingrad in both brutality and strategic consequence.
By early 1919, the front between Russian and Rhomanian forces had solidified along the Kızılırmak (Halys) River, with both armies locked in a grinding positional war.Russian forces occupied most of eastern Anatolia, including Erzurum, Erzincan, Tokat, and Sivas.Rhomania had fortified its defensive belt along the Kızılırmak, anchoring around Çorum, Samsun, and Trapezund.Russia was suffering major logistical pressure, partisans in Pontus, and overstretched supply lines left the Russian Caucasus Front fragile despite its size.
Rhomanian military intelligence through Pontic resistance networks and Armenian defectors detected critical Russian vulnerabilities:
- Their forces were spread thin across mountainous terrain.
- Ammunition and food were being routed through a single vulnerable corridor near Erzincan.
- Morale was deteriorating — many divisions had been on the line for over 18 months without rotation.
In February 1919, the Rhoman General Staff, General Alexandros Palaiologos and Field Marshal Konstantinos Sapountzakis drafted an ambitious counteroffensive plan to encircle and annihilate the entire Russian Anatolian Front.With support from American and English officers, they felt confident that a breakthrough in Anatolia would serve as a great distraction for Russia, and open up the Caucasus front, allowing pre-planned Allied troops to flood the region and push Russia from the south.
Rhomania secretly massed over 600,000 troops along the central Kızılırmak sector — the largest offensive concentration in Rhoman history. Key elements included:
- 2nd and 4th Anatolian Armies (main assault), reinforced with mechanized divisions from America and Albionoria.
- Black Sea Fleet support for northern flanking operations.
- Pontic partisan networks tasked with sabotaging rail lines around Erzincan and Tokat.
- Newly raised divisions from Cilicia and Cappadocia to exploit breakthroughs.
To mislead Russian intelligence, Rhoman forces staged fake troop movements toward Cilicia, making the Russians believe an invasion from the south was imminent.
The Breakthrough (April 11–23, 1920): The offensive began in the early morning of 11 April 1921 with a massive artillery barrage across a 150 km front between Kırşehir and Amasya, followed by combined infantry–cavalry assaults at several crossing points of the Kızılırmak River.
- Northern Pincer: Rhoman 4th Army crossed near Osmancık, pushing toward Tokat.
- Southern Pincer: Rhoman 2nd Army struck north of Kayseri, advancing rapidly toward Gürün.
- Central Front: Held deliberately light to confuse Russian high command.
By April 18, both pincers had broken through exhausted Russian trench lines. Russian divisions, isolated and short on reserves, began to collapse under pressure. Russian counterattacks failed to plug the gaps due to artillery shortages.On April 23, the two Rhoman spearheads met near Zara, closing the encirclement of nearly 400,000 Russian soldiers between Tokat and Sivas.
“The jaws of the lion have shut,” wrote a Rhoman officer in his diary. “Sevasteia will be their grave now.”
The Encirclement – Siege of Sivas[]
The Second Battle of Sivas began as a siege and evolved into one of the bloodiest urban battles of the entire war.Russian command, under General Dmitry Petrov, ordered the Caucasus Front to consolidate inside the fortified city of Sivas and surrounding suburbs.Sivas became a cauldron, with its streets fortified, machine-gun nests in every building, and improvised trenches cutting through the old Ottoman quarters.The Rhoman army encircled the city completely, cutting rail and telegraph lines and shelling supply convoys.
Urban fighting conditions[]
House-to-house combat, snipers, firebombing, and sewer tunnel warfare.Rhoman troops often advanced meter by meter, with casualty rates approaching 30% in frontline units.Pontic guerrillas operating outside the ring ambushed fleeing Russian detachments, effectively sealing the pocket.Russian airships and early biplanes attempted to resupply the garrison — most were shot down by Allied anti-air batteries. By July, the defenders faced starvation.
Collapse of the Pocket (August–September 1921): In late August, after four months of siege, Russian lines inside the city began to crumble.Mutinies broke out among Siberian regiments, Armenian auxiliary units defected en masse to the Rhoman lines, revealing defensive positions.A Rhoman assault on 5 September, led by the elite Imperial Guard 1st Division breached the western defenses of Sivas, overrunning the central railway station after 48 hours of continuous combat.On 18 September 1921, Russian General Petrov formally surrendered 300,000 men, the largest single capitulation in the Eastern Front.The city of Sivas lay in ruins.
The fall of Sivas was a catastrophic blow to the Russian war effort.The Destruction of the Russian Caucasus Front: effectively eliminated Russia’s operational capacity in Anatolia, allowing the allies to commence a retaking of Eastern Anatolia, Rhoman forces swiftly advanced eastward, liberating Erzincan and Erzurum by late October 1920.Collapse of Russian morale: news of the defeat caused mass desertions on other fronts, hastening the Russian political crisis.Allied momentum was restored, which freed up Rhoman divisions for deployment to the Balkan front, aiding later operations in Macedonia.For Rhomania, it was a national triumph, celebrated in newspapers as “Η Εκδίκηση μας εις την Ανατολή” (“Our Revenge in the East”). For Russia, it was the beginning of the end.
Casualties Overview[]
| Side | Killed | Wounded | Captured | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rhomania | 115,000 | 220,000 | — | ~335,000 |
| Russia | 180,000 | 110,000 | 390,000 | ~680,000 |
The Liberation of the Balkans (1920–1922)[]
Operation Argos was the British-Rhomanian codename, named after the traditional folklore name of Odysseus' dog, who had grown old and tired upon his return, but still just as loyal.Was a planned counter-offensive by the Imperial Powers to retake the occupied Greek mainland, as well as push further in Bulgaria.
The collapse of Italy in the north and the Russian offensive in Anatolia (1918–1919) forced Rhomania into a purely defensive posture. But by early 1920, with the successful encirclement at Sivas and the stabilization of Anatolia, the Rhoman High Command could finally shift divisions back to the Balkans.
Operational Objectives: The counteroffensive plan, devised in January 1920 during the Nicean War Conference aimed to:
- Stabilize and reclaim core Greek territories.
- Cut off Bulgarian supply lines running through the Vardar valley.
- Drive the enemy out of Epirus and Western Macedonia, breaking the French–Bulgarian southern front.
- Liberate Albania, using it as a western flank corridor into the Balkans.
- Re-establish a land corridor between Rhomania and British forces in the Adriatic.
- Prepare for final offensive actions northward into the Vardar basin and the lower Danube if required.
Buildup on the border (Winter 1919–Spring 1920): Rhomanian Forces including the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Balkan Armies redeployed from Anatolia.Elite Marine and Guard divisions stationed near Corinth and Thessalonica.Air reconnaissance by the major allied powers, and the bulk of the Rhoman airforce would concentrate in Greece proper.Amphibious capability developed with British logistical help.
British Forces:
- Expeditionary corps landed in Crete and Thessalonica.
- Royal Navy provided total naval dominance in the Adriatic, making sure to block off any potential French reinforcement, allowing amphibious flexibility and interdiction of Bulgarian supply lines.
- British Mughal divisions deployed in Epirus as shock infantry.
- The Albionorian mechanised units stratigically deployed themselve around the outskirts of Thessalonica and Adrianople
Allied Coordination: Joint Allied Command set up at Thessalonica (General Alexandros Palaiologos, British General Henry Maitland, Albionorian General Henry Wilson and Finally, a volunteer from America, General David Eisenhauer , who had previously led the Allied operation ''Torch'' in Spain).
Greek propaganda poster about the successful pushback in the Bulgarian front
The Thessaly Breakout (June–August 1920): The offensive began with a massive artillery and naval bombardment on Bulgarian positions in the Thessalian plain, followed by a coordinated land and amphibious thrust:
- Rhoman 3rd Army launched a frontal assault north from Lamia toward Larissa.
- British Royal Marines landed near Volos, outflanking Bulgarian trenches.
- Bulgarian lines cracked under simultaneous pressure from land and sea.
By August 1920, Larissa and Volos were liberated. The Pindus line, previously seen as impregnable, was now threatened from the rear, forcing the Bulgarians to withdraw toward Grevena and Kozani.
The Epirote Liberation (September 1920–February 1921): Rhoman 1st Army advanced westward through the Gulf of Corinth corridor, supported by British naval gunfire.British and Albionorian Expeditionary Corps landed at Preveza and Igoumenitsa.Combined assaults on fortified mountain passes at Ioannina forced a rapid Bulgarian–Latin collapse.
By February 1921: Epirus was liberated.Bulgarian command was split between western and eastern sectors, weakening their ability to counterattack.Allied forces gained direct access to Albania, opening a new front.
Macedonian Encirclement (Spring–Autumn 1921): This was the crux of Operation Argos:
A classic pincer movement designed to encircle Bulgarian and French forces in Macedonia.Northern thrust: Rhoman 5th Army advanced from Thessalonica toward Skopje through the Axios (Vardar) corridor.Western thrust: Rhoman 1st Army and British forces pushed northeast from Epirus through Ohrid and Monastir.By July, Monastir fell.By September, Skopje was encircled and Bulgarian supply lines through the Morava valley were severed.Thousands of Bulgarian troops were captured in the Battle of Vardar Gorge (August 1921), a decisive operational victory.
Liberation of Albania and the Balkans (Late 1921–Early 1922): With Macedonia secure, Allied forces pushed northwest into Albania.Collaborationist militias around Durrës and Vlorë surrendered en masse as British naval forces blockaded the coast.Rhomanian cavalry swept through northern Albania and Kosovo, cutting off the last Bulgarian retreats toward the Danube.Simultaneously resistance groups in Montenegro and Serbia (Chetniks) rose up, aligning with Allied forces.By spring 1922, the entire Balkan peninsula south of the Danube was liberated.
The Balkan liberation secured the southern flank of the Allied front, allowing the Entente to focus on northern Europe in the last years of the war.Rhomanian forces were celebrated as liberators in Salonica, Larissa, and Ioannina, and the campaign is often remembered in Rhoman historiography as “Η Απελευθερώσης των Βαλκανίων” (“The Liberation of the Balkans”).
Casualties Overview[]
| Side | Killed/Wounded | Captured | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rhomania & Allies | 180,000 | — | Heavy losses in mountain fighting |
| Bulgaria & France | 230,000 | 190,000 | 60,000 captured at Vardar |
Victory in the Great War[]
Territorial claims[]
Rhomania's Great War claims
France's capitulation, combined with a Russian retreat from the Caucasus, and Yugoslavia's surrender, marked the end of the Great War in Europe, and for Rhomania, the fighting had concluded.In the victorious nation's table, Rhome sat at the negotiating table, presenting its territorial claims over the defeated nations, specifically, the concessions on behalf of Yugoslavia would be the biggest, including the Entirety of the Epirus protectorate, Northern Macedonia and Thrace.Yugoslvia, led by the Bulgarian core at Sofya, would be dismantled completely, with Serbia, Bosnia and Dalmatia being granted their independence.Rhomania excerted significant control over the occupied Albanian lands, which they leveraged to push for its integration into Rhomania proper, as opposed to the German-Italian proposal for an independent Albanian nation, which conflicted with the Queen's nationalistic interests.
Territorial claims were not represented by a formal organization but rather, constituted an opinion movement, the Greek state and population had long hoped for a restoration of the Eastern Roman Empire's full territorial extent, some calling for unthinkable annexations such as Sicily, south italy (Magna Grecia irredentism), Populations of Greeks living in Crimea and Southern Ukraine, parts of Georgia and as far south as Egypt, Alexandreia became a targetted claim, which the government presented a plan for its transformation into a Greek treaty port.
At the expense of other nations, Britain sought to satisfy some of Rhomania's claims, no land would be yielded by Italy of course, so the focus shifted East.Instead of the entire Crimean coast, like ambassadors proposed, Rhomania was granted a concession port in Feodosia by Germany, after all Crimea was to be turned into an autonomous Oststaat by Germany.Furthermore lands in the Levant and Armenia would be ceded to Rhomania, for the contribution to the war effort.All these lands would solidify Rhomania as a regional player, an influencial figure in the Eastern medditerennean and near east, but most importantly, a permament ally of Germany and Britain.
Treaty of Belgrade[]
In the aftermath of the Treaty of Tourraine.A second peace treaty was signed in the liberated Serbian capital of Belgrade, the negotiating powers siding against Bulgaria favoured Rhomania's integration of northern thrace, but were sceptic about lands past the Rhodope mountain range and lake Ochrid.Rhomanian ambassadors urged Hungarian diplomats to support their claims in Northenr Macedonia, pleading that this would completely disarm the Bulgarian nation in the future, Hungary reluctantly agreed to these terms, after guaranteeing Serb and Bosnian independence.
Regarding Albania, the Hjalmar Schacht put motion on the idea of Rhomanian suzerainty over a quasi-independent Albanian country.But this proposal was shut down by Italian diploamts, who sought out Albania for themselves, on this specific issue Rhomania and Italy clashed numerous times, Italy claimed that Albania belonged to Italy's irredentist claims and put significance on the Italian population of immigrants in Vlore and Fier.Rhomania on the other hand recalled the ancient Byzantine provincial extent, which included Albania and more, and noted key Albanian cities like Durrës (Dyrachio) which had a substantial Greek population.Eventually, the Bulgarians ceded parts of northern Albania to Serbia, and the rest of the Epirus despotate to Rhomania, which included the rest of Albania, giving legitimacy to Rhomania's annexation of Albania.
Treaty of Van[]
The treaty was signed between Armenia and Rhomania, with minimum mediation, it also included territories ceded by the Assyrian state, which was a belligerent in the war effort and lay part of the blame.Russia's concessions in the Caucasus left a significant power gap that Rhomania sought to fill in, after Georgia regained its sovereignty, Persia had annexed Shirvan, and new nations were created.The treaty included significant concessions to Rhomania on behalf of Armenia, most of Western Armenia was annexed into Rhomania as autonomous peripheries, and there was also a plan for the re-organisation of occupied Assyrian and Kurdish territories into Rhomanian provinces.
Antioch-Alexandreia Disputes[]
Britain's suzerainty over Syria and Mesopotamia forced Rhomania to be restrained on behalf of Southeastern expansion, However, Rhoman command was not keen on abandonning nationalist aspirations over the reclaimation of Alexandreia (Iskanderun) and Antioch, which had been occupied by the Army during their Syrian incursion, their efforts in the Levant and Mesopotamia would not go unoticed by the British, who, although wanted to keep the original Syrian and Levantine borders, could not pursue Rhomania to withdraw their garissons stationed there, fearing another Syrian nationalist reprisal.On behalf of the garissons stationed there, Governor Zitakis confronted the possibility of Antioch's integration into the Eastern expansion plan of Rhomania, new British governor of Syria, Thomas Edward Lawrence, put the dispute up to a refferendum, to see wether or not the cities wanted to remain under British rule or join Rhomania.Unbeknownst to him, the Rhoman army had previously begun secret removals of local Syrian populations further south, and pushed Turkish refugees to settle in 'Hatay', as well as bribing local administration to turn a blind eye, gaining increasing favour with Allawite locals.
The referendum is still up to debate wether it was rigged or not, but the citie sof Alexandreia and Antioch voted overwhelmingly in favour of joining Rhomania, later it would be officially ratified by the Treaty of Homs, signed between the British administration in the Levant and Rhomania.The following independent Syrian government in 1929 would attack this notion and demand the return of the province to Syria, but to no avail.
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