Lucantara (Rome and China)

Lucantara ꦭꦱꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ (Javanese) ᬮᬲᬵᬦ᭄ᬢᬭ (Balinese) ㄌㄨㄍㄢㄉㄚㄌㄚ (Sinitic Languages) ルカンタラ (Japanese)
Location of Lucantara (Rome and China) Luca Antara in the centre
Location of Lucantara (Rome and China) Uluru, located in the centre of Luca Antara
Languages		Most common: Lucantaran Creole • Javanese • Japanese • Balinese • Wong Ireng languages
Area
-	Total	7,591,608 km2  2,931,136 sq mi

Lucantara, also Luca Antara, is the main landmass of the continent of the South Pacific. Located beneath the Nusantara archipelago of Southeast Asia, surrounding islands include Papua, Tasmania, New Zealand and other smaller islands and island chains. Luca Antara covers s 7,591,608 km² or 1.5% of the total surface of the globe. The landmass is mainly arid in its interior, enjoying more temperate and Mediterranean temperatures in its southwest and southeast, while its north enjoys a more tropical climate. Luca Antara is notable for its endemic wildlife.

Originally inhabited by native people who settled during the last glacial period of the Ice Age 60,000 - 50,000 years ago, Luca Antara remained mostly isolated from contact with the outside world up until the 1300s when the northern coast began to be visited by people from the Nusantaran islands. Notably the Makassan and Javanese people established trade and contact with northern native Lucaantarans, exchanging different goods and resources. Beginning then in the 1400s, the Javanese established several trading towns along the coast and dubbed the native people 'wong ireng' (Javanese: 'Black People'). Javanese traders also introduced several diseases which had a severe effect on the native population across the landmass. In the 1500s, more towns were established hugging the coast by the Javanese and other Asians including Malays, Vietnamese, and Khmer. Wong Ireng tribes also began to consolidate themselves more into tribal confederations, sometimes in alliance or opposition to the Asians. Further trade development resulted in the importation of cheap labour from India and Southeast Asia to work on plantations and towns on the northern coast, further bringing the colonists in conflict with Wong Irengs. By the 1600s, the importation of camels led to the establishment of trade routes through the interior of Luca Antara. Other invasive flora and fauna led to a decline and extinction of several native species. When the East Asian powers began to express further interest in the colonisation of Luca Antara, many tribes had formed confederations armed with technology bought from Asian traders and any Wong Ireng middle men. Eventually, the 1819 Treaty of Jakarta led to the partition of Luca Antara into several colonies at the cost of native rights. Throughout the 1800s and 1900s, natives faced discrimination and were drastically out populated by new settlers. Throughout the 1900s, these colonies eventually gained independence, and native rights improved.

Name

Model of a typical ship used to reach Northern Lucantara

The name Lucantara is a compound word of Luca and Antara from the Javanese language. Luca is most likely a corrupted from of the word nusa (ꦤꦸꦱ), the Javanese word for 'island', which is ultimately derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian nusa with the same meaning. The second part antara (ꦲꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ) is from Javanese meaning 'between, interval, interspace' and is a loanword from Sanskrit (अन्तरा). So, as a compound word nusa + nusa, means outer islands. Thus, Lucantara is a cognate of Nusantara and originally carried similar meanings. Both words are of Javanese origin and represented a Javanese outlook on surrounding islands. Lucantara was and is still in Nusantaran nationalism considered an outer island of Java.

The point that Lucantara evolved into its own meaning and became to refer to the modern landmass is still up to debate, although it is known that the trend began with foreign traders before being adopted by the Nusantarans. In 1513, Khmer sailor Meng Sothy became the first person to describe the landmass in his book where he documented the experience onboard a Balinese trading ship carrying trade between Bali and Northern Lucantara. He reported that when he asked what the land was called, the captain replied by saying 'Luca Antara' in Balinese, which was most likely borrowed from the Javanese language. Along with this, he also dubbed the native people as 'Lucaantarans', and described them as having darker skin akin to the natives of New Guinea armed with primitive gear. However, the Javanese name for the natives, wong ireng (black people), would gain more prominence. Meng Sothy's book gained prominence after its publication and Asian geographers widely adopted it as the name of the southern land below Java. Eventually, Lucantara came to refer to the entire landmass after further voyages and explorations.

Among Sinitic geography circles during early exploration the name xīn sēngqí (New Sengqi) was used to described Lucantara in refence to Sengqi. Sengqi, or Zang (Arabic: زَنْج; Persian: زنگ; Ceasan: ZINGIUM), is a region of East Feizhou along the Western Ocean. This link between the two regions was due to the dark skin of the Wong Ireng being similar in colour to the native people of Sengqi.

History

Pre-colonial Wong Ireng clan

Pre-contact with Asia

Human settlement of Lucantara began between around 60,000 to 50,000 years ago during the last glacial period f the Ice Age. At this point, sea levels were much lower and nearby islands were connected to Lucantara by land bridges. It is hypothesised that early humans cross from an expanded Southeast Asia to an expanded Lucantara via island hopping or other methods across the remaining stretch of water separating the two lands. From their arrival, humans then spread across Lucantara and to surrounding islands, diverging into Wong Ireng populations.

Before major contact was established with Asia and the Nusantaran islands, Austronesians have made contact with Wong Ireng tribes numerous times. This resulted in the introduction of new technology, the Dingo, and genes of Asiatic origin. The presence and advent of fire farming the Wong Ireng caused the extinction of several unique Lucantaran species and megafauna.

Beginning of Asian Colonisation

Initial Trepang Farming and Influence

Makassans in Northern Lucantara, late 1300s

During the 10th century, the Javanese kingdoms of Mataram and Airlangga increased exploration around the Nusantaran islands and Western Ocean and may have accidently made contact with Lucanara by ending up shipwrecked on the Western Coast on return journeys from Senqqi. Proper contact began in the 1300s when the Majapahit Empire centred in East Java established temporary settlements along the Northern Coast to farm trepangs. Trepangs have been considered a delicacy among East and Southeast Asian cuisine, with the demand for them often being higher than the supply. To fill the gap in East Asian markets, particularly in Grimreih, Nusantaran trepangers frequently made contact with Lucantara to harvest the supply of trepangs present there. Over time, Javanese became the dominant group farming trepangs, although Timorese, Balinese, and Makassans were also significantly present. In exchange for farming rights and local labour, Asians would hand over to Wong Irengs alcohol, rice, textile, and weapons. Javanese pidgin also became the lingua franca of the region. As time progressed, the range Nusantarans were fishing in increased along the Western Ocean.

Trade to and forth Lucantara was however seasonal. Trepangers would arrive in Bǎosà (December) and spend the next months catching, harvesting and preparing trepangs. They often cooperated with Wong Irengs, who offered hospitality to the foreigners although conflict occasionally happened. By the time the monsoon (wet) season began the third month Kǎitèlá (April), the Nusantarans departed back to their home islands, while the trepangs were traded along the maritime Silk Road to East Asian markets.

Initially, settlements were temporary similar to the hunter gatherer lifestyle of local Wong Ireng tribes. But as contact became routine, trepangers (who were often male) would begin relationships with local women who would foster children. Sometimes, trepangers were married to women back home but would have few wives and children in Lucantara. Among the Makassans, favourable relations were forged with most Yolngu clans. Trade between the Makassans and Yolngu would particularly influence the Yolngu to move away from their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle towards permanent settlements modelled of the Makassans. These settlements were mainly populated by the descendants of Yolngu women and Makassan men, and were to some extent considered more Makassan then Wong Ireng. However, as Yolngu culture only permits Yolngu people to marry other Yolngu people, the women who married outside of their culture with the Nusantarans were expelled from the traditional structure, leading to the emergence of a new mixed race ethnicity. This similar trend occurred with other native tribes that made significant contact with the Nusantarans.

This led to the emergence of a half-Nusantarans, half-Lucantaran population: the Dahbhumi people (from Sanskrit words dah (burnt; दह्) + bhumi (Earth; भूमि))

Map of major mandalas in Eastern Nusantara and Northern Lucantara. Also shown are major trade routes from Lucantara to Makassar and Java.

Rise of Northern City-States

By the 1400s, these settlements grew into city states modelled off the Mandala system of Southeast Asian kingdoms. Ruled by monarchs also modelled off the Nusantarans, they established a tributary system where nearby tribes were forced to recognise the rule of the monarch and pay annual tribute in the form of slaves and resources. Due to the nature of the Mandala system, some tribes were part of the tributary system of more than one city state. This shift in power often brought the new city states themselves into conflict with tribes and each other. Instead of being armed by primitive weapons such as spears and wooden shields as they had once been, the armies of the city-states now consisted of metal weaponry introduced by the Nusantarans. Following this trend, more city states were established on the northern coast by mixed-race Lucantarans. By 1450, six mandala city-states emerged in the regions of Kayu Jawa and Marege.

Majapahit rule of Kayu Jawa

In Kayu Jawa, emerged Loobi and Tanah Kosong. Unlike most of the city-states in Marege, these cities were founded primarily by Javanese immigrants and not by descendants of Nusantaran and Wong Ireng inter-breeding. Also, unlike the kingdoms of Marege, these realms were more subordinate to the rule of the Maharaja of the Majapahit realm of Bhumi Jawa, although autonomous. Territorially, Kayu Jawa and the people living there were considered part of Nusantara and thus subordinate to the Majaraja. As part of this special relationship, Loobi and Tanah Kosong had to pay an annual tribute. Both Loobi and Tanah Kosong were classed as Wanua and administered by a Thani originally from Java.

Loobi was founded in 1444, and was at that point the most southernly area controlled by the Majapahit. When Majapahit trepangers travelled along the Kayu Jawa coast, they encountered Wong Ireng tribesmen who wore Riji - engraved pearl shells worn around the front of their waist. Interested in exploiting the area's pearls and the pearl trade, the Majapahit traders then chose the area at Loobi to establish a base of relations wit the native people. Another settlement, Tanah Kosong, was established in 1449.

Ecological impact of Asian colonization

Colonisation of Lucantara by Nusantarans led to the introduction of invasive flora and fauna into the Lucantaran ecosystem, though it initially was confined to the north due to the north's isolation from the rest of the continent by deserts and arid zones. A staple of the Nusantaran diet, rice was quickly introduced and grown when permanent settlements began.

Increased Asian influence over natives

A coastal Gulumeijin settlement showing their transition to a permanent life-style

Situation in 1450

By 1450, Asian influence over Lucantara was confined to a few posts on the northwest and northern coast. Even in these areas, influence over Aboriginal tribes varied. In the north, many tribes had become connected with the new Dahbhumi ruling class of Marege. This was especially the case with the Tiwi and Gulumeijin people, who were particularly influenced by Jalamila. The Majapahit and Dahbhumi settlement's relationship with Wong Ireng tribes was often facilitated by trade between each other, with each mutually benefiting from each other. In return for weapons (such as cetbang cannons and swords), gunpower, fruits, precious metals, cloth, ivory and other goods, Wong Ireng tribes would supply the Dahbhumi and Majapahit with a supply of meat (such as fish, Kangeroo meat), pearls, manpower, and an annual tribute.

However, Wong Ireng tribes of the region had been gradually transitioning away from their traditional hunter-gatharer lifestyle, and into rice-growing civilisations. Rice had been introduced by settlers, who had taught Wong Irengs how to grow the crop. One of the tribes that did the transition the most successfully were the Gulumeijin, who established rice farms on the outskirks of Jalamila on land conquered from the Woolna people. The land was okay for rice-growing due to it being a floodplains. In turn, the Woolna people established rice fields along the wetlands of the Beras Ireng river. However, the rice fields faced threats from magpie goose, and introduced rice was weak to the harsher elements. This caused the Wong Ireng to domesticate native rice species who were adapted to the region's heat and conditions. Some native rice were also crossed with introduced rice.

Map of Lucantara in 1503 following the establishment of the Tanah Angsa Colony in the southwest.