Mexica (An Honorable Retelling)

Empire of Mexica يخچان تلاهتولويان
Flag Coat of arms
Motto:  موتلاهتوهچايوتل ين خوچهيتل "United with Peace"
Anthem:  الله أكبر "God is Great"
Location of Mexica (green)
Capital (and largest city)		Tenochtitlan
Official languages		Nahuatl
Regional languages		Maya, Chibchan, Mozarabic
Religion		Islam (official) Nahua paganism (minority)
Government		Federal parliamentary constitutional elective monarchy
-	Huetlatoani	Ali II
-	Prime Minister	Ahmed Mezcapan
Legislature		Supreme Assembly
Establishment
-	Foundation of the Triple Alliance	1428
-	Córdoban personal union	1534
-	Independence from Córdoba	1702
-	Coup d'etat	1905
-	Current constitution	1950
Currency		Mexican dirham (MD)
Drives on the		right

Mexica (Nahuatl: ميخيچا), officially the Empire of Mexica (Nahuatl: يخچان تلاهتولويان, Excan Tlatoloyan), and commonly referred to as the Mexica Empire, is a country located in southern Columbia, mainly in the Mesocolumbian region. It borders Comancheria and the United States to the north, the Maya Kingdom, Marquisbourg, Muggenkust, and Tiefenadler to the west, and Meiguo and the Bribri Emirate to the south, while maintaining a maritime border with Champlain. Its population of 172.3 million people makes it Columbia's second largest country by population and the 8th largest in the world, and its area of 2,411,238 square kilometers makes it one of the largest countries in the world by area. Its capital and largest city is Tenochtitlan, while other important cities include Texcoco, Wuadalajara, Tikal, and Chichen Itza.

Human presence in Pre-Columbian Mexica goes back to 8,000 BCE and it went to become one of the world's six cradles of civilization. Most of Mexica's areas were dominated by various other peoples, including the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, and Purepecha. Nahuas were descended from the Chichimec peoples and would establish various city states throughout central Mesocolumbia. These city-states would form an alliance in 1428, commonly known as the Triple Alliance or the First Mexican Empire. This would go on until 1534 during the colonial period, when Córdoba and Mexica entered into a personal union. For almost two centuries, Córdoban missionaries would begin the spread of Islam throughout the colony while also spreading the Mozarabic language and alphabet. The colony would become one of the wealthiest ones in the New World and served as an important trading outpost between Columbia and Muqaddas. The colony would come to an end in 1702 with the Mexica War of Independence, led by Nahua leaders, against Córdoba, establishing a modernized and Islamized Second Mexican Empire.

The empire's expansionist nature led to the conquering of the colonies of Sun's Land and New Caledonia. The conflicts would intensify when the empire conquered the colony of Comancheria in 1803. The Comancheria revolt, which occurred in 1820, would serve as a prelude of the Mexican-Columbian War, which led to huge territorial losses for the empire. The war would also cause the empire to enter an economic depression, causing various pro-democratic and republican movements across the empire. In the beginning of the 20th century, the empire entered an era of social unrest that ended with the coup d'etat of 1905, removing the Prime Minister from total power and establishing a Huetlatoani-led parliamentary system led by the Mexican Front, whilst the Prime Minister retained more democratic control. From then on, Mexica played important roles in the first and second Great Wars, serving as a major arms supplier for the Allied powers. In 1950, a congressional reform movement aided in the adoption of the 1950 constitution, which remains in effect to this day.

Mexica has one of the largest economies by nominal GDP and the United States serves as a major economic power. Its also home to various LTPENESCO World Heritage sites, primarily its ancient Mexica, Mayan, and Córdoban architecture. It also serves as a charter member of the League to Enforce Peace and is a member state of the Conference of the New World, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and the Organization of Ibero-Columbian States.

History

Before European and African contact (pre-1473)

Before the First Mexican Empire

The Serpent Mosque, built by Mayans and known as the Temple of Kukulcan by Nahua pagans, located in Chichen Itza

Mexica's history stretches back to a millenia with the earliest human artifacts being chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Mexica Valley and radiocarbon, dated to circa 10,000 years ago. It was the site of domestication of maize, tomatoes, and beans, which allowed the paleo-Indians to form villages. The villages also became dense during this period, causing them to develop into chiefdoms.

The earliest complex civilization in Mexica was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BCE. This saw the spread of distinct religious and cutural traditions, and becoming one of the cradles of civilization. In the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán, respectively. During this period the first true Mesocolumbian writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesocolumbian writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script, which used pictorial images to write words and texts. In Central Mexica, a city called Teotihuacan would emerge and become one of the largest cultural centres within the region, having the largest structures within Mesocolumbia. After its collapse in 600 AD, other cities ensued with each other.

In the early 13th century, the Nahua people, descendants of the Chichimec folk, embarked on a migration southward to central Mexica from the northern realms, particularly dwelling in the present-day states of Zacatecas and Guanajuato. Much akin to other polities in central Mexica, the Mexica wove a migration narrative intermingling supernatural elements with earthly and divine history, all in the pursuit of political legitimacy. According to pictographic codices chronicling Mexica history, their empire traced its roots to a place known as Aztlán. The initial Nahua settlers, preceding the Mexica migration, established independent city-states in the Basin of Mexica and its environs. These early city-states, termed altepetl, were governed by dynastic leaders referred to as tlahtohqueh or tlatoāni in singular form. Engaged in sporadic conflicts, these city-states vied for supremacy through shifting alliances, yet none achieved dominance. The Mexica, being the final wave of Nahua migrants to reach Central Mexica, entered the Basin around 1250, when much of the fertile land had already been claimed. Facing this challenge, the Mexica, in a strategic move, convinced the ruler of Culhuacan, a historically significant refuge for the Toltecs, to allow them settlement in the relatively infertile Chapultepec, aptly named "in the hill of grasshoppers." In return, the Mexica served as mercenaries for Culhuacan. Records from this period have also mentioned a widespread pestilence which killed a significant amount of the population, but likely did not reach the shores of Lake Texcoco; this outbreak can be accredited to the events unfolding in Muqaddas.

Mexica warfare

Following the Mexica's valorous service in the battles for Culhuacan, the ruler, seeking to solidify control, appointed one of his daughters to govern the Mexica. However, according to mythic accounts, the Mexica defied this appointed ruler's fate, sacrilegiously offering her in a grisly ritual, flaying her skin at the behest of their god Xipe Totec. Outraged upon discovering this sacrilege, the ruler of Culhuacan unleashed his forces, forcibly expelling the Mexica from Tizaapan. Undeterred, the Mexica sought refuge on an island nestled in the midst of Lake Texcoco, where an eagle perched majestically atop a nopal cactus. Interpreting this celestial sighting as a divine sign, the Mexica, resilient and guided by their faith, established their new city, Tenochtitlan, on this sacred island in the auspicious year known as ōme calli, signifying "Two House," in the year 1325 AD.

Scene from page 20 of the Codex Zouche-Nuttall, depicting sacrifices and interactions between the Mexica and their gods

The Mexica, renowned as formidable warriors, ascended to eminence, solidifying their stature as a military force of consequence. Warriors held a paramount position, and the symbiotic relationship between warfare and both political and religious aspects propelled them to supremacy, predating contact with colonial powers. In alliance with Azcapotzalco, the burgeoning Mexica city-state paid homage to the ruler Tezozomoc. This alliance facilitated Azcapotzalco's territorial expansion, transforming it into a modest tributary empire with crucial support from the Mexica. Recognition as a legitimate monarch eluded the Mexica ruler until a strategic move involving a matrimonial union with Culhuacan's royalty. Through skillful diplomacy, Mexica leaders secured a daughter from Culhuacan, and their progeny, Acamapichtli, ascended the throne as Tenochtitlan's inaugural tlatoani in 1372. While the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, aided by the Mexica, extended their dominion, the Acolhua city of Texcoco flourished in the eastern expanse of the lake basin. Eventually, hostilities erupted between these states, and the Mexica played a pivotal role in the subjugation of Texcoco. By this juncture, Tenochtitlan had burgeoned into a metropolis, earning Texcoco as a tributary province as a reward for its steadfast allegiance to the Tepanecs. Distinctive in Mexica warfare was an emphasis on capturing foes rather than outright killing, both in tactics and weaponry. Capturing enemies held paramount importance, serving religious rituals and offering soldiers a means to distinguish themselves in the throes of campaigns.

Early years and reforms

In the year 1426, the demise of Tepanec king Tezozomoc threw his realm into turmoil, sparking a succession crisis that plunged the land into civil strife among potential heirs. The Mexica, aligning with Tezozomoc's favored successor, Tayahauh, witnessed a tumultuous turn when Maxtla, the son, seized the throne, initiating a vendetta against dissenting factions, including Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter met an untimely demise, possibly orchestrated by Maxtla. Undeterred by Maxtla's aggression, the new Mexica leader, Itzcoatl, stood firm, imposing a blockade on Tenochtitlan and demanding increased tribute. Simultaneously, Maxtla targeted the Acolhua, forcing the king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl, into exile. Seeking retribution, Nezahualcoyotl sought military aid from the king of Huexotzinco, while the Mexica forged an alliance with the dissident Tepanec city of Tlacopan. In 1427, the united forces of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco clashed with Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428. Post-war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and by 1430, the remaining triumvirate – Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan – solidified their collaboration in a historic accord, now known as the Triple Alliance. The spoils of conquest were shared among the three cities, and a pact was struck to jointly hold acquired lands. Tribute division saw two kings of the alliance alternating between Tenochtitlan and Texcoco, with the third ruling in Tlacopan. These monarchs assumed the esteemed title "huetlatoani" or "Elder Speaker," akin to an emperor, rotating their de jure supremacy over other city-state rulers, known as "tlatoani," in this rotational role.

Following the inception of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan spearheaded transformative reforms across the Mexica state and its religious practices. There are claims that Tlacaelel, a key figure in these reforms, orchestrated the burning of certain Mexica books, contending they harbored falsehoods and deeming it unwise for the populace to be acquainted with such depictions. If true, these book-burnings likely targeted documents laden with political propaganda from prior regimes, as Tlacaelel set about rewriting Mexica history, subtly elevating the Mexica's prominence. Upon Moctezuma I's ascension as the Mexica emperor, further reforms were set in motion to consolidate dominion over conquered cities. Obstinate monarchs were supplanted with puppet rulers displaying allegiance to the Mexica cause. A novel imperial tribute system emerged, featuring Mexica tribute collectors who directly taxed the populace, sidestepping the authority of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl, overseeing Acolhua lands, implemented a policy granting subject kings tributary holdings in distant territories, fostering cooperation with the empire. Rebel kings risked losing tribute from foreign lands, and some were replaced by calpixqueh or appointed governors rather than retaining dynastic rule. This intricate system aimed to maintain control and loyalty within the burgeoning Mexica realm.

Map of the expansion of the empire, showing the areas that have been conquered by the rulers of Mexica.

Under Moctezuma's reign, sweeping legal measures were enacted, drawing stark lines between nobility and commoners, with the death penalty prescribed for transgressions like adultery. In an edict aimed at fostering education, religiously overseen schools were mandated in every neighborhood. Commoners attended "telpochcalli" schools, receiving rudimentary religious instruction and military training. For the nobility and esteemed commoners aspiring to priesthood or artisan roles, a more prestigious "calmecac" school was established. In a bid to recognize exceptional service, Moctezuma introduced the title "quauhpilli," conferring non-hereditary nobility upon commoners for distinguished military or civil achievements, akin to the English knighthood. Holders of this title rarely married into royal families but occasionally ascended to kingship. Integral to these reforms was the institution of Flower Wars, a regulated form of warfare. Reflecting preference for capturing live prisoners over battlefield slaughter, these wars were ritualized, ensuring a consistent supply of experienced Mexica warriors and captive enemies for sacrificial offerings. Tlacaelel, as per native accounts, initiated Flower Wars to appease the gods during a severe drought from 1450 to 1454. These wars, primarily waged against the arch-enemy Tlaxcala, were pre-arranged rituals, meticulously conducted to collect prisoners for sacrificial rituals and ensure the divine favor of the gods.

Expansion and Malian contact (1473-1534)

After vanquishing the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl wielded authority in the Basin of Mexica and embarked on territorial expansion. Initial imperial targets included Coyoacan in the Basin of Mexica and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos. These conquests enriched the fledgling empire with substantial tribute, particularly in agricultural goods. Upon Itzcoatl's demise, Moctezuma I ascended the Mexica throne, steering the empire toward the Gulf of Mexica and south into Oaxaca. However, a formidable four-year drought in 1450 briefly stymied expansion, necessitating the reconquest of several Morelos cities once the drought abated. Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl persisted, extending their dominion eastward and southward. In 1468, Moctezuma I passed away, and his son Axayacatl assumed the throne. Axayacatl focused on consolidating acquired territories, a challenging task as many provinces rebelled against the rapid expansion initiated by his predecessors. Simultaneously, the Purépecha Empire in West Mexica, led by King Tzitzipandaquare, asserted itself by invading the Toluca Valley in 1455, challenging lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl. Axayacatl, in 1472, successfully reclaimed the region but faced a formidable Purépecha counteroffensive in 1479. In a pivotal clash, the Purépecha scored a resounding victory, capturing or killing over 90% of the Mexican army. Axayacatl, wounded in the battle, retreated to Tenochtitlan, never again confronting the Purépecha in open conflict.

Codex depicting the arrival of the "burned face men", c.1502, depicting the Malian visit in 1473.

In the year 1472, the passing of Nezahualcoyotl marked the end of an era, and his son Nezahualpilli ascended to the revered position of huetlatoani in Texcoco. This transition coincided with the demise of Axayacatl in 1481, paving the way for his brother Tizoc to assume the mantle of leadership. Regrettably, Tizoc's reign proved short-lived and unremarkable. Failing to significantly expand the empire, he faltered in effectiveness, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among the nobility. Tizoc's rule, marred by ineptitude, came to an abrupt and likely sinister end five years into his reign. It is believed that his own nobles orchestrated his demise, their discontent with his perceived incompetence culminating in his tragic demise, possibly through assassination. This pivotal moment marked a turbulent episode in the Mexican Empire's history, raising questions about leadership and stability within its intricate political landscape.

Despite there being evidence to suggest that European traders had been active in the Gulf of Ophir for the last forty years, Mexica appears to have had no awareness of European or African settlements prior to 1473. In what is attested to that year, the Mexica made contact with Malian traders venturing northwards from Muqaddas under command of Toumani Diabira, under a military expedition which had intended to force Burgundian nobles from making settlements in modern day Champlain, but had changed routes after hearing of a "land of gold" from Mayan counterparts. The fleet, which comprised mostly of sambuk vessels and men in plated gold armor, was interpreted as a divine omen by the Mexica. Diabira led fifty men into Tenochtitlan and negotiated the sale of several thousand kilograms of obsidian from Tizoc in exchange for gold, but did not stay for more than a week. However, the coastline was mapped, and a general outpost was made south of the former Totonac territories.

Likely due to the fact that Malian vessels at the time relied on combustion to produce travel for larger cargo ships, Tizoc and his nobles believed that the Malians were the unexpected arrival of Xiuhtecuhtli, the god of fire. A lack of proper communication between the two parties likely led Tenochtitlan to believe that a cataclysmic event was underway. In the Nahuatl language, Malians are referred to as tlatlaixtimal, which roughly translates to "burned faces of glory", as the darker skin admixture was unfamiliar to them. Following Tizoc's demise, his brother Ahuitzotl assumed leadership in 1486. The early years of Ahuitzotl's rule were dedicated to quelling rebellions, an inherent challenge given the indirect nature of Mexican governance. Subsequently, Ahuitzotl initiated a fresh wave of conquests, extending Aztec influence to the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Coast. Faced with heightened border conflicts with the Purépecha, Ahuitzotl seized and fortified the city of Otzoma, dispersing or eliminating its populace.

As Mexican dominance burgeoned under Ahuitzotl's reign, he adopted the title "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker"), emphasizing Mexica supremacy within the Triple Alliance. Although the alliance technically governed the empire, the Mexican Emperor asserted nominal, if not actual, seniority. Upon Ahuitzotl's passing in 1502, his nephew Moctezuma II ascended to power, dedicating much of his reign to consolidating territories annexed by his predecessors. In 1515, Mexican forces, led by Tlaxcalan general Tlahuicole, once again invaded the Purépecha Empire. However, the campaign proved unsuccessful, restricted mainly to raiding, as the Purépecha repelled the Mexican army. Moctezuma II, in an effort to tighten Mexica control within the alliance, implemented imperial reforms. With the demise of Nezahualcoyotl, the Mexica Emperors assumed de facto leadership. Moctezuma II wielded his authority to centralize power, purging many of Ahuitzotl's advisors, executing some, and dismantling the quauhpilli class, thereby closing avenues for commoners to ascend to nobility. This period of reform and consolidation marked the twilight of the Mexican Empire's intricate political landscape.

In 1517, the Malians in the south, facing increasing pressure from their European counterparts, began supplying Mexica with more modernized technology in order to eliminate their competition at home. Malian engineers taught the Mexica how to operate gunpowder and mortar shells, and aided them in constructing a defensive fleet to protect from European invasions. Moctezuma, instead of focusing on establishing defenses along the Gulf coastline, diverted this new technology towards a rejuvenated campaign against the Purépecha, with minimal assistance from Arabs that had been hired by Mali. The reHuetlatoanit Battle of Otzoman on December 3, 1517 saw the Purépecha annihilated, and being forced to face a general retreat. Their forces and empire soon disintegrated but popular resistance continued for the next twenty years. This, however, proved only minimal to the conflicts that would follow.

In 1519, the Castilian explorer Hernan Cortés was able to secure a victory against the Malian forces defending coastal installations in Maya. While not having proper funding from Castile, Cortés sought to eliminate the threat of what he perceived as a rich and profitable asset by the Islamic powers. Cortés set sail from the port of Campeche bound for Cempoala, a tributary province of the mighty Triple Alliance. In the proximity thereof, he established the short-lived settlement of Veracruz, where he convened with envoys from the reigning Mexica sovereign, Moctezuma II. Upon the return of said emissaries to the grand city of Tenochtitlan, Cortés, in turn, proceeded to Cempoala to parley with the local Totonac chieftains. The Totonac ruler, in confidence, detailed to Cortés a litany of grievances against the Mexica, and under the persuasive charm of the Castilian conquistador, the Totonacs resolved to incarcerate an imperial tribute collector.

Subsequently, Cortés, through cunning rhetoric, secured the release of the aforementioned collector, convincing him that the entire affair was conceived independently by the Totonacs. Emboldened by the support of the Totonacs, Cortés mustered twenty companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala, effectively declaring war upon the Mexican. During this juncture, dissent simmered among Cortés' own ranks, leading to a mutinous plot by some of his soldiers. In a decisive response, Cortés scuttled his vessels in the harbor, eliminating any prospect of retreat to the shores of Cuba. The Totonac-led expedition traversed into Tlaxcala, seeking an alliance with the formidable Tlaxcalans against the Mexicans. However, the Tlaxcalan general, Xicotencatl the Younger, misconstruing their intentions, launched a preemptive assault. After engaging in several fierce skirmishes, Cortés eventually swayed the Tlaxcalan leadership to order their general to cease hostilities. A pact was forged, and Cortés, accompanied by 5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalan warriors and 400 Totonacs, in addition to his Castilian contingent, ventured forth to the Basin of Mexica. While sojourning in the city of Cholula, Cortés purportedly received intelligence regarding a planned ambush against the Castilian. In a preemptive maneuver, he directed his forces to assail and slay a considerable assembly of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the central square of the city.

Inevitably, a central assault proved disastrous following the massacre of the Cholulans, and Mexican forces, with Malian gunpowder, were ordered to launch a direct contingent which made use of the outdated phalanx organization. Records indicate the Mexican failure to realize the Castilian threat was at large due to promises of gold from the Castilians, as well as a lack of Malian warning of which powers would have been a general threat to the Mexica. In any case, the Battle of Tenochtitlan ended in a Castilian defeat, and Cortés disappeared soon after; it is presumed that he drowned in Lake Texcoco, weighed down among his soldiers by captured quantities of gold.

Córdoban union and colonial era (1534-1702)

A brief period of political instability known as the nejamēn ensued, which saw general Tlacotzin briefly seize power and declare a "regency government", though the Huetlatoani was still the de facto ruler. Ultimately, as they had backed the Muslim anti-European factions during the Pilgrim Crusades and had been a traditional maritime ally of Mali, Mexica became highly susceptive to Islamic influence. The concept of a personal union was otherwise unfamiliar to the native population, however there was minimal resistance to Cordoba's proposition that the two nations form a long-distance collaborative monarchy through a royal intermarriage. In 1534, Isabel Moctezuma, the daughter of Moctezuma, agreed to marry Muhammad XVIII, Cordoba's monarch, who had recently come to the throne after the death of his father Muhammad XVII. Cordoban missionaries flooded into the country to spread their faith, which war-weary European powers were often unable to prevent.

In the Realm of Shahada, 1629, Jusepe di Ribera, depicting Mesoamerican Aztecs sighting a crescent

The population of Mexica was categorized into four principal classes. A person's class was determined by their racial heritage and place of birth. The most influential class was the upper class, comprised of individuals born in cities who governed local municipalities. Only members of the upper class were eligible for high-ranking positions in the colonial government. The second class consisted of people with Arab heritage born in Mexica. Many were affluent landowners and merchants, yet they had minimal influence in governmental affairs. The third class, known as the mixed class, included individuals with both Arab and Native ancestry. They occupied a lower status and faced disdain from the other classes. The most disadvantaged group was the Unwanted, the descendants of non-Nahua peoples. They held the least power and suffered the most severe conditions. Natives were compelled to labor on ranches and farms. Additionally, there were Africans in colonial Mexica, constituting about 4% to 5% of the population, with their mixed-race descendants eventually accounting for approximately 9%. Economically, Mexica primarily served the interests of the Cordoban personal union, contributing significantly to its military and defensive endeavors. Mexica supplied over half of its taxes and supported the governance of all New World territories. Competition with the metropolis was inhibited; for instance, the cultivation of grapes and olives, initiated by the government in 1540, was prohibited to prevent competition with Cordoban produce.

During the zenith of the nation's early might, particularly under Ahmed II's rule, the central government's authority intensified. The central government's influence permeated the daily lives of Mexicans in unprecedented ways compared to earlier dynasties and rulers. This signified a pivotal evolution in the Makhzen (Arabic: مخزن), Mexica's royal or Huetlatoanic administration. Originally, 'makhzen' denoted a 'warehouse' or 'storage,' highlighting the state's role as a provider of sustenance and necessities during famines or crises. However, from the Cordoban era forward, it increasingly represented the Huetlatoani's governmental authority and power. Concurrently, the sovereign's status became strongly linked with the sharifian status (descendant of Muhammad), a connection that solidified with the subsequent dynasties. This shift was also evident in the adoption of 'Moulay' (from Moroccan and Cordoban Arabic, meaning 'my master') as a regular component of the Huetlatoani's name and title. The nation was also able to repulse an attempted invasion by China during the Sino-Cordoban War of 1551-1552, which resulted in the development of an active naval force.

Regarding religious architecture, the Tenochtitlan Mosque and the Michhuahcan Mosque, constructed during Ahmed II's reign, are remarkable for being part of extensive civic complexes that catered to the local populace, akin to the Ayyubid architectural style prevalent in Egypt. These complexes encompassed a variety of facilities including a madrasa, library, primary school, hammam (public bathhouse), mida'a (ablutions house) with latrines, an animal water trough, and a public fountain for water distribution. Additionally, the Cordobans played a significant role in establishing, constructing, or enlarging the zawiyas (religious complexes around a tomb) at major shrines in Tenochtitlan. From the 16th century onwards, the use of zellij as an architectural ornament became increasingly common, particularly on the lower walls of rooms. The Cordobans enhanced the intricacy of geometric patterns, partly by utilizing finer mosaic pieces, although sometimes at the cost of color variety. The zellij designs in the Tenochtitlan Tombs are esteemed as prime examples of this art form.

The Cordobans also encouraged northern settlement. For many years prior, there had been a movement by the Nahuatl peoples to expand north against the peoples they had referred to as the Chichimeca. "Chichimeca" was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexica generically applied to nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples. Chichimeca carried the same meaning as the Roman term "barbarian" that described Germanic tribes. The name, with its pejorative sense, was adopted by the Cordobans. For the Spanish, the Chichimecas were a wild, nomadic people who lived north of the Valley of Mexica. They had no fixed dwelling places, lived by hunting, wore little clothes and fiercely resisted foreign intrusion into their territory, which happened to contain silver mines the Nahuatl wished to exploit. Under a campaign led by Abhazred the Glorious, a mixed-race figure, Mexica was able to expel the majority of the Chichimeca using modern technology and scorched-earth tactics, leading a majority into exile or into the hands of the dwindling Caddo Caliphate.

Independence and second imperial era (1702-1831)

This era was characterized by unexpected events that overturned one hundred and fifty years of Cordoban colonial dominance. The colony transitioned from being governed by a legitimate monarch and his designated viceroy to being ruled by an illegitimate monarch and viceroy established through a coup. Subsequently, Mexica witnessed the restoration of the traditional monarchy and an ensuing deadlock with insurgent guerrilla forces. Years of political corruption and a lack of interest by the government in Cordoba to finance urban development led to mass bankruptcies and rioting. Bedouin, Berber, and Tuareg immigrants had been joined by the rebellious Nahua crowd against the Arab-dominated government in Tenochtitlan, which refused any reform efforts by the Huetlatoani. Soon enough, after the Twenty Proposals of Eid al-Fitr were denied or ignored, the lower and middle classes in Mexica staged a revolt against Cordoba. With minimal assistance from Mali due to a shared disposition against the tranquil Cordoban monarchy, Mexican rebellions were able to swiftly conquer the cities and countryside, displacing smaller loyalist militias raised against them.

Admiral Abdelkader Perez, a major figure in the Mexican independence movement

Mexican independence was based on a mixture of Islamic and Nahuatl law. The Nahuatl concept of Tlalticpac emphasizes the importance of living a balanced and virtuous life. This philosophy encourages personal responsibility and individual growth within the community framework. Tezcatlipoca, one of the principal gods, is associated with personal destiny and self-reflection. The god’s influence encourages individuals to look inward, understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and strive for personal excellence. From their foundation, the Mexica had distinct educational institutions: Calmecac (for noble children) and Telpochcalli (for commoners). These schools fostered a sense of personal duty and individual development, preparing students to contribute to society in various roles. Despite the hierarchical society, commoners (Macehualtin) could achieve higher status through personal merit, such as bravery in battle or skill in trade, highlighting a path to individual advancement.

In comparison, Islamic law also forwarded a religious basis for independence. The concept of Tawhid emphasizes the oneness of God and underscores individual accountability. Each person is responsible for their actions and will be judged individually, which promotes a sense of personal responsibility and moral agency. This was cited by the revolutionary Abdelkader Perez as the reasoning behind the nation's desire to secede. In 1699, he wrote: "The Quran, the book of which our foremasters have abided from, states "There is no compulsion in religion" (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:256), which may delight the principle that we, as individuals have the right to choose our faith freely, which further may reflect a persistent respect for personal liberty and conscience." These ideas heavily resonated with the Enlightenment in Europe in the coming century. The philosophy of Averroes had also resonated within the intellectuals of the Nahuatl government in the past decades, due to his belief that metaphysical insight was a priority when religious institutions became corrupt or inconsistent.

After its independence, Mexica again embarked on an aggressive era of territorial expansion. Free from restrictions implanted by the previous ruling class, the new government under Prime Minister Ismail Ibn Sharif, a nobleman of Moroccan descent, made it clear its intent to move northward. In the previous centuries, the Nahuatl had vigorously began expansions to the south, displacing or massacring local ethnicities with the exception of the Bribri, who had converted to Islam. However, their expansion was halted by a strengthened Meiguo and increased competition from the French, German, and Dutch settlers on the pedestal towards Muqaddas. The Maya also repulsed any remaining attempts by Mexica to conquer their territories. A series of ventures known as the Northern Expeditions gave way to the capitulation of former Hanseatic colonies in modern Comancheria, and the adoption of a protected legal status under Mexica by the Comanche and Navajo tribes.

By 1770, Mexica had made it apparent its intent to attack Japanese territories in Kosuto. The Empire of Japan had been dwindling in power for the last century, and there was no active military force that could resist a large contagion of Mexican forces potentially attempting to seize it. Throughout much of its history, the Sun's Land was a crucial trading hub for Japan and various European colonies. However, by the early 18th century, as Japan's economy began to falter and faced threats from newly independent nations, the Mexican Empire saw the colony as a valuable port to enhance its resources. This led to the Mexican invasion in 1814, sparking the two-year Mexican-Japanese War. The war concluded in 1817 with the Mexican capture of New Edo, resulting in Japan's loss of its sole colony and territory in Columbia. However, despite the conquest, Mexican forces were unable to assimilate the extensive Japanese culture in the region, and attempts to send detachments to reinforce cities against rebellions were frequently harrassed. These troubles, however, proved meager in comparison to the much larger conflicts of the 19th century.

First Columbian War and instability (1831-1905)

Mexican tensions had grown with the United States since its purchase of the territory of Louisiana from France in 1803. While the United States' sense of sovereignty had taken inspiration from Mexica's own declaration of independence, the two nations frequently clashed over trade disputes. In 1817, President DeWitt Clinton protested Mexica's conquest of Kosuto, calling it "an act of stringent imperialism." In response, Mexica instituted a blockade that was temporarily supported by the remnants of the English monarchy in Columbia, namely Henryland. The United States was also highly critical of Mexican expansion into the Pacific, which endangered its maritime ally, Russia. The two nations were brought close to war in 1820 over the rebellion of English-speaking settlers in Comancheria, at that time a Mexican governorate.

Portrait of Mexican general Tecuhtli Cuauhtémoc, known professionally as Tletl or The Islamic Hannibal, noted for his string of victories against the United States in the Mexican-Columbian War

On May 8, 1832, General Zachary Taylor, with 2,400 troops, arrived to relieve Fort Anahuac in present-day Van Buren. However, Mexican General Ahmed Toltecatl advanced north with a force of 3,400, intercepting him. The U.S. Army's "flying artillery," a term for horse-mounted mobile light artillery, provided rapid-fire support but had little effect on the Mexican forces. Taylor and the United States significantly underestimated the resilience of Toltecatl and his troops, leading to their repulsion of Taylor at the Battle of the Outskirts within an hour. In Hayashi, the United States captured large territories due to the strategic advantage of their ridges, yet encountered strong resistance when taking regional capitals. At sea, an American invasion aimed at Tenochtitlan via the Gulf of Ophir was thwarted at landfall. Nonetheless, a general blockade achieved limited success, although France's initial reluctance to support it through Champlain impeded covert military aid to Mexica from other nations, such as Córdoba.

Despite reservations about supporting the conflict, the American public was deeply dismayed by the defeats suffered throughout its duration. By 1836, the United States had seized control of Mexica's aqueduct system near the Al-Nahr Kabr basin but failed to quell Navajo uprisings that Mexica covertly supported. In October, the Mexican general Tecuhtli Cuauhtémoc, dubbed the Islamic Hannibal by the populace, inflicted a devastating defeat on Columbian forces at the Battle of the Gulf of Mündung, reclaiming the southern part of Comancheria and triggering widespread defections among the region's German settlers. Cuauhtémoc's offensives extended into Louisiana, where they were repelled by forces under Winfield Scott, yet the scorched-earth tactics employed by the Mexican military only delayed subsequent attacks.

However, by 1838, a rebellion by the Cahita and Timan peoples, alongside support for Japanese revolts in Kosuto by the United States, further weakened Mexica's capacity to wage war. Henryland's support for Mexica disintegrated following the defeat of their allies in Canada that same year. Columbian forces were able to push Mexica further south to the Chotilapacquen River, which became the formal border between the two countries for the next ten years. To make matters worse, with French loans having been denied repayment due to the expenses of the war, Mexica saw a brief invasion of its coastline by French forces, driving it to begin a surrender with all existing parties in the conflict. With this, Mexica lost half of its territory, and was forced to continue paying its debt to the French Empire over a period comprising the next fifty years. The nation remained neutral during the Second Columbian War, in which the French-allied Grand Confederation declared and won independence from the United States.

Despite its neutrality, Mexica became susceptive to Confederate invasions and border disputes in the years following its independence. The Confederacy, backed by France, launched an invasion to take the region's northern oil fields in 1861, which further hampered economic development. However, the nation resisted attempts by the Bonaparte monarchy to establish a claimant on their throne, and a victory against a French detachment at the Battle of Tikal in 1866 ensured the nation's continued sovereignty. In the 1880s, Prime Minister Ibrahim Toltecotzin re-established trade relations with the English-speaking world in response to near-global French hegemony. He additionally prioritized a more effective economic and diplomatic agreement with Al-Bayd, the main Islamic power in Muqaddas, after it declared its independence from Mali in 1845.

Coup d'etat and resurgence (1905-1950)

A group of female workers making altadkhins in the Tenochtitlan National Factory, 1938

The rule of the authoritarian Prime Miniser Amir Tlahan (1895-1905) was dedicated to the rule by law, suppression of violence and modernization of the country. Tlahan was a military commander in the 1860s who was elected in 1894, established a dictatorship, and ruled in collaboration with the landed oligarchy. He maintained good relations with the United States and Novanglia, which led to a sharp rise in foreign direct investment, especially in mining. The general standard of living rose steadily. He adhered to a coarse social laissez-faire doctrine that primarily benefited the already privileged social classes. Tlahan was overthrown by the Mexican coup d'etat of 1905 and died in exile. This period of relative prosperity is known as the Resurgence (tajdad). As traditional ways were challenged, urban Mexicans debated national identity, the rejection of indigenous cultures, the new passion for European culture once the Europeans were ousted from Mexico, and the challenge of creating a modern nation-state through industrialization and scientific development. Cities were rebuilt with modernizing architects favoring the latest Western European styles, especially the Beaux-Arts style, to symbolize the break with the past. A highly visible exemplar was the Federal Legislative Palace, built 1897–1910.

Mexica entered the Third Great War as an ally of the United States and the Allied Powers, seeking to topple French and Confederate hegemony in the New World. Confederate inability to actively suppress the Nahuatl ethnic majority in its western and southern territories had produced instability since the 1860s. Rapid industrialization and diplomatic agreements led to Mexican forces successfully displacing Confederate forces from the northern half of the country, and reconquering most of their previous territories; however, the League to Enforce Peace blocked efforts by Mexica to occupy anything further than the Yushraq River. In the 1930s, the impact of the Great Depression led to a rise in radical movements, which were superseded by the adoption of centrist, yet authoritarian measures by Huetlatoani al-Hakam. The rise of the fascist regime in the Confederacy further alarmed Mexica, which instated mandatory conscription in the late 1930s. In the wake of an invasion by Confederate forces in 1940, Mexica retreated from the province of Cuzcatlan in the north, due to a lack in numbers. Ultimately, assistance from the United States, and persistent rebellions in the Confederacy by varios ethnic groups led to Mexican victory in the conflict by 1943, leading to the nation expanding its reach into Nahuatl-speaking regions proper, along the Chotilapacquen River.

Contemporary era (1950-present)

Mexica entered the Cold War as a de facto ally of the United States, but additionally backed the German-led bloc due to areas of commercial interest. It protested the tariffs imposed by the United States on Comancheria, due to the impact on the region's crop production which was still tied to banks in Mexica. Abdullah Icnoyotl, who served as Prime Minister from 1951 to 1955, heavily invested in the nation's uranium deposits, resulting in the first Mexican atomic bomb being detonated in the Gulf of Ophir on June 8, 1965. At home, a countercultural movement arose in popular culture, with the North African-originated musical genres Raï and Chaabi gaining popularity among the general population. The conservative parties declined in popularity following a suppression of a workers' strike in 1969, which resulted in an ensuing era of liberal and progressive domination. Infrastructure projects as well as the development of accessible high-speed rail saw an increased economic standing worldwide.

External economic shocks, coupled with reliance on unstable short-term capital and debt to support an overvalued fixed exchange rate, eroded benefits, leading to sporadic economic growth from 1985 and a collapse in 1991. In that year and the following, the economy experienced its most severe downturn since 1930; by 1992, Mexica had defaulted on its debt. Its GDP plummeted nearly 20% in four years, unemployment soared to 25%, and the dirham lost 70% of its value after devaluation and floating. Since then, Mexica's socio-economic conditions have gradually improved. From 1993, expansionary policies and raw material exports spurred a GDP recovery. This progress has largely continued, generating over five million jobs and boosting domestic consumption and fixed investments. Social programs were enhanced, and several key companies privatized in the 1990s were re-nationalized starting in 2005.

Government

Ali II, the current Huetlatoani of Mexica

Ahmed Mezcapan, the current prime minister of Mexica

The Empire of Mexica is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy according to the most recent 1950 constitution. It is separated into 10 historical regions and 40 districts, each having a level of authority within it, and they must follow the 1950 constitution and have at least 3 branches into each of their local governments.

The legislature of Mexica is the Supreme Assembly, composed of the House of Senators and the Chamber of Deputies. The Assembly makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments.

The executive is the prime minister of Mexica, currently Ahmed Mezcapan, who serves as the head of government. The prime minister also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The prime minister is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the power to veto bills.

Monarchy

The monarch of Mexica is called the Huetlatoani and is one of the only few elective monarchies in the world. They are elected every 10 years in the Council of Lords, a council consisting of the rulers of the 10 historical regions of Mexica, with the office being rotated within them. It was established in the 18th century after Mexica gained independence from Córdoba and would serve as the absolute monarch until the Mexican revolution in 1915.

Being a constitutional monarch, the Huetlatoani serves as the head of state and has little to no political role, only serving as a ceremonial monarch. The Huetlatoani is also the commander-in-chief of the Royal Self-Defense Forces of Mexica.

Administrative regions

Historical regions

Mexica is separated into 10 historical regions, each led by a ruler. Despite this, they're not considered a first-level division and serves mostly as ceremonial regions for each ruler. All rulers are part of the Council of Lords.

Districts

The districts, also called city-states or altepetl (Nahuatl: التيپيتل), are the first-level divisions of Mexica. There are 40 districts.

District	Population
Ah Kin Pech	928,363
Caymanas	68,136
Ch'ol Paan	5,543,828
Collimaitlan	766,940
Copalli Calli	3,421,020
Copalli Calli Tepetl	798,447
Cuauhtepec	8,653,410
Cuetlaxcoapan	6,583,278
Cumcaac	3,152,889
Cuzcatlan	6,486,201
Darien	4,380,271
Huaxyacac	4,144,697
Huetar	5,163,798
Iximulew	18,068,383
K'eri K'eri	2,368,467
K'iche	408,487
Kuahuilan	3,218,817
Lower Kosuto	341,000
Michhuahcan	4,825,401
Nayaritlan	1,235,456
Nicaragua	6,549,325
Quanaxhuatl	6,166,934
Quintana Roo	1,857,985
Tamalli Pan	3,717,929
Tenochtitlan	26,573,725
Tetel Koyotl	3,027,817
Tlachinollan	3,717,962
Tlacxitlan	1,374,290
Tlahtolli	1,964,938
Tlalpan	1,425,675
Tlalpilollan	3,084,384
Tonallan	1,832,650
Tzampentli	2,395,030
Xalixco	8,348,151
Xihuahua	3,801,962
Xiualoan	3,029,889
Xochiquetzaloyan	5,840,619
Xukpi	10,702,779
Yucatan	2,320,898
Zacatecas	1,636,317

Culture

Religion

Islam is the largest religion in Mexica, as well as the state religion, accounting for over 75% of the population, 92% of whom follow the Tlahuicole branch. The branch first originated during the Mexican revolution when Nahua scholars decied to recreate a new branch of Islam in the place of Sunnism, as they thought it was commonly associated with the Córdobans. The sect emphasizes the unity of the Mexicans and their faith, focusing on the concepts of community, harmony, and reverence for nature. It recognizes the importance of Mexican ancestral heritage and incorporates elements of Mesocolumbian spirituality within the framework of Islamic teachings.

National symbols

The national animal of Mexica is the axolotl (Nahuatl: اخولوتل), while the golden eagle serves as the national bird. Both animals appear in various Mexican symbols.

Sports

Mesoball, an ancient sport, remains the most popular sport within Mexica, and is played in the Mexican National League, the highest professional level of mesoball in the world and one of the big 3 leagues of mesoball. It is also widely regarded as one of the most competitive sports competitions in the world. Other sports that are popular within Mexica are association football, boxing, and basketball.