Alternative History
Mexican Empire
Imperio Mexicano
Empire du Mexique
Timeline: Springtime of Nations
OTL equivalent: Arizona, majority of Mexico, California, New Mexico, Utah and Nevada
Flag of Empire of Mexico Mexican coa
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: 
Equidad en la Justicia
"Equity in Justice"
Anthem: 
Himno Nacional Mexicano
("Mexican National Anthem")
MexicooMapSoN
CapitalMexico City
Official languages None at federal level
National language Spanish (de facto)English (popular)
Religion
  • 78.3% Christianity
    • 81% Catholicism
    • 3.3% Protestantism
  • 11.8% no religion
  • 3.9% other
Demonym(s) Mexican
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
 -  Emperor Maximilian IV
 -  Prime Minister Olga Sánchez Cordero
Legislature Congress
 -  Upper house Senate
 -  Lower house Council of Ministers
Independence from Spain 
 -  Declared 16 September 1810 
 -  Consummated 27 September 1821 
 -  Recognized 28 December 1836 
 -  First constitution 4 October 1824 
 -  Maximilian I accepts Mexican crown 10 April 1864 
Area
 -  Total 3,679,599 km2 (7th)
1,420,701 sq mi 
Population
 -  2023 estimate 147,407,383 
 -  2020 census 145,326,978 (9th)
 -  Density 197/km2 
510.2/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
 -  Total $2.92 trillion 
 -  Per capita $34,078 (69th)
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
 -  Total $2.03 trillion (13th)
 -  Per capita $18,745 
Gini (2018) 43.2 
HDI (2021) 0.898 (86th)
Currency Mexican peso (MXN)
Time zone (UTC−8 to −5)
 -  Summer (DST) varies (UTC−7 to −5)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .mx
Calling code +52

Mexico (Spanish: México; French: Mexique), officially the Empire of Mexico, also known as the Second Mexican Empire, or the Maximillian Empire, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, the Confederated States, and Sonora to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatamala, and the Caribbean Sea; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Mexico covers 3,679,599 km2 (1,420,701 sq mi), making it the fourth biggest country in North America, and the world's 10th-largest country by area; with a population of over 150 million, it is the second most populous in North America, it is the 9th-most-populous country and has the most Spanish speakers. Mexico is organized as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising 40 provinces and Mexico City, its capital. Other major urban areas include Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Monterrey, Fenix, Albuquerque, Guadalajara, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, and León.

Pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many intertwined civilizations, including the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, and Purepecha. In 1521, the Spanish Empire and its indigenous allies conquered the Aztec Empire from its capital Tenochtitlan, establishing the colony of New Spain. Over the next three centuries, Spain and the Catholic Church played an important role in expanding the territory, enforcing Christianity, and spreading the Spanish language. Wealth coming from Asia and the New World contributed to Spain's status as a major world power for the next centuries. The colonial order came to an end in the early nineteenth century with the War of Independence against Spain.

Mexico's early history as an independent nation state was marked by political and socioeconomic upheaval. The Federal Republic of Central America shortly seceded, and an small invasion by a foreign powers took place: the US as a consequence of the Texas Revolt, leading to the small Mexican–American Crisis. After an intervention by the French in 1867, Maximilian I, would become emperor, establishing the current government.

After the loss of much of its northern territories during the Mexican-Confederate War, the country would enter a period of stagnation, riots and civil war. Following the death of Maximilian I in 1904, a Civil War would begin, being won by Ferdinand I. After the First World War, Mexico wouldn't interfere much in World politics, or wars, excluding the 1963 Intervention of the CSA. After much of its northern states started to explode in population, Mexico has been rising among other nations.

Mexico has the world's 12th-largest economy and 11th-largest PPP, with the United States being its largest economic partner. It has a large population, cultural influence, and steady democratization, making it a regional and middle power. Mexico is a member of the United Nations, OECD, WTO, APEC, Organization of American States, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, and a founding member of PATO, and the Organization of Free Nations.

History[]

Indigenous civilizations before European contact (pre-1519)[]

Tekolitan

Teotihuacan, the 6th largest city in the world at its peak (1 AD to 500 AD)

The prehistory of Mexico dates back to 10,000 years ago, when stone tools were found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico. This enabled the transition from hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages. In the formative eras, maize cultivation and cultural traits were diffused to the rest of the Mesoamerican culture area. The Olmec culture flourished on the Gulf Coast from 1500 BCE, and the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán. The Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script was developed during this period, and the earliest written histories date from this era.

Teotihuacán was a military and commercial empire in Central Mexico during the classic period. After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers. During the Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica and became politically and culturally dominant. During the early post-classic era, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Alexander von Humboldt popularized the term "Aztec" to distinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans.

MepArtistic depiction of Mexico-Tenochtitlan

Artistic depiction of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital and largest city in the Americas at the time. The city was completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and rebuilt as Mexico City.

The Aztec empire was an informal hegemonic empire that restored local rulers to their former positions and practiced human sacrifice on a large scale. It is essential to Mexican identity and has had an impact on European thought.

Spanish conquest and colonial era (1519–1821)[]

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in 1519 when Hernán Cortés landed on the Gulf Coast and founded Veracruz. This was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era in Nueva España (New Spain). Two factors made Mexico a jewel in the Spanish Empire: large, hierarchically organized Mesoamerican populations and the discovery of vast silver deposits. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. In the first half-century of Spanish rule, a network of Spanish cities was created, including Mexico City, Puebla, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Oaxaca, and the port of Veracruz.

Old mexico photo

View of the Plaza Mayor (today Zócalo) in Mexico City (ca. 1695) by Cristóbal de Villalpando

When deposits of silver were discovered in northern Mexico, the Spanish secured the region against fiercely resistant Chichimecas. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams-Ons Treaty with the United States, setting New Spain's northern boundary. Central Mexico was one of the first regions to be incorporated into a globalized economy due to its trade links Under Viceroy Revillagigedo, the first comprehensive census was created in 1793 with racial classifications. The population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%-17% per century. Colonial law with Spanish roots was introduced and attached to native customs, creating a hierarchy between local jurisdiction and the Spanish Crown.

Mexico spain map 1810s

Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1800. The northern parts of New Spain, including Louisiana, were sparsely populated and mostly outside the control of colonial authorities.

The Virgin of Guadalupe was a symbol of American-born Spaniards' patriotism and independence during the War of Independence. Spanish military forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell rebellions. To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect the Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade. Of greater concern to the crown was of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized the Spanish ports of Havana, Cuba and Manila in the Seven Years' War.

Independence era (1808–1821)[]

The upheaval in the Spanish Empire that resulted in the independence of most of its New World territories was due to Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in 1808. This caused a crisis of legitimacy of the monarchy, leading to various responses in both Spain and Spanish America. In Mexico, elites argued that sovereignty now reverted to "the people" and that town councils (cabildos) were the most representative bodies. American-born Spaniards petitioned the viceroy José de Iturrigaray (1803–08) to convene a junta to determine rule in Mexico, but they failed to come to agreement. Peninsular-born Spaniards took the initiative, arresting Iturrigaray and leading creole elites in the capital.

Photo or something mexico

Siege of the Alhondiga de Granaditas, Guanajuato, 28 September 1810

The Army of the Three Guarantees, formed by ex-royalist Iturbide and insurgent Vicente Guerrero in February 1821. On 16 September 1810, secular priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared against Hidalgo's local declaration sparked a huge revolt of the masses, targeting the persons and property of white elites. After Hidalgo's death, Ignacio López Rayón and José Mara Morelos assumed the leadership, occupying key southern cities with the support of Mariano Matamoros and Nicolás Bravo. In 1813, the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and signed the "Solemn Act of the Declaration". In 1820, Spanish liberals seized power in Spain and Mexican conservatives worried about the imposition of liberal principles overseas.

Royalist criollo general Agustn de Iturbide approached Vicente Guerrero to join forces to seize power in Mexico. Iturbide issued the Plan of Iguala on 24 February 1821, which called for Roman Catholicism as the nation's sole religion, the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, and the equality of those born in Spain and those born in Mexico. On 24 August 1821, an incoming Viceroy and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córd.

Early Post-Independence (1821–1855)[]

The first 35 years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability and the changing of the Mexican state from a transient monarchy to a fragile federated republic. There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict between Conservatives and Liberals, and economic stagnation. Catholicism remained the only permitted religious faith and the Catholic Church retained its special privileges. Former Royal Army General Agustn de Iturbide became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought a constitutional monarch from Europe. The United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court of the emperor and sending a message to Europe via the Monroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico.

Mexico map 1820

Map of the First Mexican Empire

After the forced abdication of the monarch, the First Mexican Republic was established and former insurgent General Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the republic. Central America, including Chiapas, left the union. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce Liberal Vicente Guerrero became president in a disputed election. During his short term in office, he abolished slavery. His Conservative vice president, former Royalist General Anastasio Bustamante, led a coup against him and he was judicially murdered.

There was constant strife between the Liberals (also known as Federalists) and their political rivals, the Conservatives (also known as Centralists). General Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a national hero due to his role in both these conflicts. He lost a leg in combat during the Pastry War, which he used for political purposes to show his sacrifice for the nation. Santa Anna came to dominate the politics for the next 25 years, often known as the "Age of Santa Anna", until his own overthrow in 1855.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

General Antonio López de Santa Anna

Mexico fought with indigenous groups in the north, including the Comanche. To stabilize and develop the frontier, the Mexican government encouraged Anglo-American immigration into present-day Texas. Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule in Mexico, suspending the 1824 constitution and promulgating the Seven Laws. This resulted in civil war and three new governments declared independence. The largest blow to Mexico was the loss of Texas, and California, which resulted in the short Mexican-American Crisis. Despite this, Santa Anna returned to the presidency and was ousted and exiled in the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla.

The Second Empire (1855-1904)[]

The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. It was a prelude to more civil wars and yet another foreign invasion. The Liberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated a new Constitution of 1857, separating Church and State, stripping the Conservative institutions of the Church and the military of their special privileges (fueros); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing education. Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–61).

Benito Juarez President of Mexico

Portrait of Liberal President Benito Juárez

The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on the battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French. Mexican conservatives asked Emperor Napoleon III to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed Maximilian Hapsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal republic under Benito Juárez was basically a government in internal exile. After the complete removal of the Liberal government, by 1866, Maximillian had become the official emperor of Mexico, and the Empire of Mexico had become the official recognized government.

First ten years (1864-1874)[]

During the first ten years of Maximillian's rule, many rebellions sprung up across the country, seeing as many Mexicans saw Maximilian as an outsider. During the war, many states would declare independence, but the only two who would keep their independence were Sonora, and New Spain (Both absorbed by Mexico in 1905). Mexico's economy continued to slowly grow. Maximilian's popularity continued to rise, as rebellions continued to decline. While there would be many assassination attempts on his life, most of them didn't succeed.

Emperador Maximiliano I de Mexico

Maximilian Hapsburg, emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1904

Declining period (1874-1904)[]

Mexico's relations with the Confederate States, had been declining for some time, following many border skirmishes over territorial, and oceanic disputes. Alexander J. Hamilton, the then president of the Confederacy, just like many Confederates wanted for the CSA to reach the Pacific Coast. Following an intentional death of the Confederates on what the Confederacy believed were their territorial waters, the Confederacy's Congress would agree to invade Mexico.

Mexican-Confederate War (1874-1877)[]

On April 21, the Mexican-Confederate War would begin. At first Mexico was able to hold the Confederates at the Rio Grande river, but by the end of May, they had been pushed out of Nuevo Leon, and Chihuahua. Following a blockade of the Gulf of Mexico, by the Confederacy, and in the Pacific, by Sonora, and New Spain, Mexico was forced to fight the Confederacy on their entire east coast.

On November of 1874, Francis Lubbock, would face off against Leonardo Márquez in the Battle of Ganado. After a five day, the Confederacy would win, forcing the Mexicans to be pushed to the Colorado River. After the Battle of Yuma, in February 1975, the entire northern coast would be annexed by the Confederacy. Beginning a siege on Nagales, lasting seven months. During this time, the Confederate navy would regularly bombard Mexican ports and coastal cities, launching two successful invasions on Campeche, and Tampico. By the middle of September, Nagales would be captured, leading to the capture of Sonora. For the remainder of the year, the Confederacy would do minimal changes.

MexicoLossesMapSoN

Red: Territories lost by Mexico to the Confederate State

The start of the year in 1876, there would be minimal changes, excluding the capture of Yucatan peninsula. By April, Mexico City would be placed under siege, for over 8 months. During this time, a majority of Mexican territory would be captured. Following the capture of Mexico City, on December 25, Mexico would declare peace with the Confederates. Leading to the Treaty of Parroquia San Rafael being signed on February 1st, 1877. In it Mexico would lose all of Alta California, Nuevo México, Sonora, Mexico, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Campeche, Yucatan, Tabasco, and Chiapas. While the Confederacy would pay Mexico 30 Million Dollars in reparations.

Following the Mexican-Confederate War, Mexico would lose over 80% of its land, and popularity for Maximilian, fell by over 95% in just the next year. Mexico's population began to immigrate, it lost most of its vital farmland, and coast. It began to be hugely dependent with the United States, as seen by the Mexican-American Trading Alliance, signed in 1879. For the remainder of the century, Mexico's population, would slowly grow, but from 1877 to 1890, it only fell, and its economy too grew.

Slow growth (1877-1904)[]
Mexico Population graph SN

Graph of Mexico's population from 1850 to 1910

Mexico's economy would continue to grow, past most South American countries, and by 1900, it had reached the Confederacy's. Its military continued to grow, so did it's population, and GDP. Mexico's population would grow, from 4 Million in 1881, to over 13 Million in 1905. Maximilian's popularity continued to grow, and US-Mexican relations did too, with the signing of the Mexican-American Friendship act, signed in 1882, the Mexican-American Defensive Alliance, signed in 1887, and the Mexican-American Non-aggressive Alliance, signed in 1899.

War of Succession (1904-1910)[]

After the start of the First World War, Mexico, would stay neutral, while still supplying the US, with ammunition, but it wouldn't join the war, as Maximilian feared, that if they did, Mexico would be completely annexed by the CSA. Following his death on March 17, 1904, many debated who would be the legal successor of Maximilian, as he didn't have any children. At first many politicians wanted to end the monarchy, while some wanted the grandson of Agustín I, Agustín de Iturbide y Green to become the next emperor. This would lead to two sides forming, between the republicans, who wanted to end the monarchy, and monarchists, who wanted to continye the monarchy.

On March 31, two weeks after the death of Maximilian, Agustín, would visit the capital, and declare himself emperor of Mexico. For the next month, fighting would continue amongst these two sides, until Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the son of Maximilians' younger brother Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria, claimed that he should be the legal emperor of Mexico. Five days later, the son of Maximilians' older brother Franz Joseph I of Austria, Rudolf claimed that he should be the emperor. This meant that four sides were fighting each other, for who should be the next emperor. As many Mexicans supported Maximilian, they would split into two factions. Followers of Rudolf, and Franz Ferdinand. While many local Mexicans supported Agustín de Iturbide y Green, also referred to as Agustín II, by his followers.

Rudolf I

Rudolf Franz of Austria, pretender to the Mexican throne from May 2, 1904 to June 14, 1910

Fighting would now ingulf the state, and as thousands began to flee, as much died. On July 31, 1904, followers of Agustín de Iturbide y Green, would invade New Spain, claiming it was A rightful part of Mexico. As the United States, was a close ally of Mexico, they wouldn't declared help for any side until 1909, after the First World War, had come to an end. By February of 1905, the north of Mexico was conquered by Agustín II, Vera Cruz, and the central region, by Rudolf, and the south by Franz Ferdinand. Seeing this many concluded that Ferdinand, would be the first to lose, and this would culminate with the Battle of Piedras Negras, in which Ferdinand's forces were able to push out Rudolf's, as his army was uncoordinated, leading to them being pushed to Vera Cruz. Following the collapse of New Spain in early 1905, it was quickly divided, with Rudolf taking a majority.

Franz Ferdinand

Ferdinand I, emperor of Mexico from 1910 to 1943

On May 12, 1905, Franz Ferdinand, would declare war on the Entente Powers, officially making him join the war. Two weeks later, Rudolf would too do the same, and Agustín II, three days after that. For the next two years, there would be no noticeable change, excluding the collapse of the republican movement in 1907. By now much of the Yucatan Peninsula, and Sonora had been reconquered, with each going to Ferdinand, and Agustín, respectively. In mid 1906, Agustín's forces would surround the city of Albuquerque, starting a major battle, with US forces in the North, the battle would last for over a year. By now Ferdinand, had moved from the south, and his forces had begun regularly attacking Agustín's forces, which were lightly defended.

On September 3, 1907, Albuquerque would fall, leading to the complete capture of the Confederacy's Pacific coast, and leading to Agustín gaining all of Mexico's former land. Rudolf's forces by now were mostly left on the Gulf of Mexico, rarely fighting with other armies. On September 9, 1908, the First World War would come to an end, although, the Confederacy wouldn't surrender, until 6 months later. During this time, Ferdinand's forces had captured Mexico City, Sonora, and the Pacific coast.

Fighting in Vera Cruz Springtime of Nations sn

Battle of Vera Cruz, June 12-14

In 1908, the US would declare Ferdinand the legal successor of Mexico. Eventually by 1909, most of Mexico was under Ferdinand's control, and many nations declared that he was the successor of Maximilian, as seen as he was invited to the Treaty of Versailles for Mexico. On April 1, 1910, Agustín de Iturbide y Green, would officially dissolve his army, fleeing Mexico. After the Battle of Vera Cruz, Rudolf would be killed by a firing squad, on June 14, and on the 15, the war ended, as a Franz Ferdinand victory. Who would name himself "Ferdinand I".

Golden Age, Maximilian III rule (1910-2000)[]

Contemporary period (2000-)[]

In 2000, the PRI lost the prime-minister election to Vicente Fox of the conservative National Action Party (PAN). In 2006, Felipe Calderón won the election with a narrow margin over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who pledged to create an "alternative government." In 2012, Josefina Vázquez Mota won the prime-ministry again with a plurality of about 35% and did not have a legislative majority. In 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador won the 2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote, leading a left-wing coalition led by his left-wing party, MORENA. The coalition won a majority in both upper and lower congress chambers.

Maximilian IV of Mexico

Maximilian IV, the current emperor of Mexico

Maximilian III would die on January 31, 2023, ending a 73 year long reign, after which his son Nicolas, under the name Maximilian IV, would become the next and current emperor, serving just over five months.

Mexico has faced high crime rates, official corruption, and narcotrafficking. AMLO's success is attributed to the country's other strong political alternatives exhausting their chances and the politician adopting a moderate discourse with a focus on conciliation.

Government[]

The emperor governs through nine ministries: of the Imperial Household, of State, of Foreign Relations, of War, of Government or Interior, of the Treasury, of Justice, of Public Instruction and Worship, and of Development. These ministries (except that of the Imperial Household) comprised the Council of Ministers, which discussed the affairs that the emperor referred to them. The emperor has the power to appoint the Minister of the Imperial Household and the Minister of State, and in turn, the Minister of State, which was ex officio the President of the Council of Ministers, was to appoint the rest of the Ministers.

A Council of State was given the power to frame bills and give advice to the emperor, and a separate private cabinet, serving as the emperor's liaison, was divided into civil and military affairs. The Empress has the right to serve as regent if under certain circumstances the emperor was to be unavailable, making her the first and woman to ever govern Mexico. As a result of her appointment to regency, she is considered to be the first woman to rule in the Americas.

Administrative divisions[]

The boundaries and constituent units of Mexico have evolved over time from its colonial-era origins. Central America separated from Mexico in 1821, Yucatán was briefly an independent republic, Texas separated in the Texas Revolution, and when it was annexed to the U.S. in 1845, it set the stage for the Mexican–American Crisis and major territorial loss to the U.S. The Empire of Mexico is made up of of 40 provinces, each having their own laws and jurisdiction over their area.

Mexico City is a special political division that belongs to the empire as a whole and is in the process of achieving greater political autonomy by becoming a federal entity with its own constitution and congress. The states are divided into municipalities, the smallest administrative political entity in the country, governed by a mayor or municipal president (presidente municipal), elected by its residents by plurality.

MexicoProvincesSoN

Administrative divisions of Mexico