Nicholas II of Russia (A Better Tsar)

His Imperial Majesty His Excellency Nicholas II of Russia
Father of the Fatherland
Nicholas II in 1910 on his fiftieth birthday
Emperor of all Russia
Reign	1 November 1894 – 17 July 1968
Coronation	26 May 1896
Predecessor	Alexander III of Russia
Successor	Alexis II of Russia
Regent	Elizabeth Feodorovna, Grand Duke Nicholas, Grand Duke Mikhail (1915-1917)
Secretary-General of the United Nations
In office	14 December, 1945 - 10 April, 1953
Predecessor	office established
Successor	Dag Hammarskjöld
Emergency Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Armed Forces
In office	28 July 1915 - 11 November, 1918 and 6 September, 1936 - 2 September 1945
Born	Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov 18 May 1860 Alexander Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Died	17 July, 1968 (aged 108) Imperial Lodge of Tsar-Saint Nicholas II, near Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Burial	24 August 1968 Imperial Lodge of Tsar-Saint Nicholas II
Spouse	Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine (m. 1882)
Issue	Grand Duchess Olga Tatiana, Queen consort of Yugoslavia Maria, Queen consort of the Hellenes Anastasia, Queen consort of Bulgaria Alexis II of Russia
Full name
Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov
House	Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Dynasty	Romanov
Father	Alexander III of Russia
Mother	Dagmar of Denmark
Religion	Russian Orthodox
Signature

Nicholas II (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov; 18 May 1860 - 17 July 1968) or Nikolai II was Emperor of Russia from 1 November 1894 until his death on 17 July 1968, and the last King of Congress Poland and Grand Duke of Finland. During his reign, Nicholas gave support to the economic and political reforms promoted by several close advisors, early examples including Sergei Witte and Pyotr Stolypin. Early in his reign, he advocated modernization based on foreign loans and close ties with France, which was later changed to self-reliance after it was determined that the economy had recovered and was self-sufficient. At first, he resisted giving the new parliament (the Duma) major roles, wishing to maintain his autocracy. This was enforced both through suppression of public riots and his status as a war hero both in the Russo-Turkish War and World War I. After the Second World War, he began a process of liberalization and decentralization in government, laying the foundations for a constitutional monarchy which would be adopted shortly after his death by his son and successor, Alexis II.

Early life

Birth and family background

Grand Duke Nicholas Alexandrovich was born on May 18, 1860 in the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoe Selo, south of Saint Petersburg during the reign of his grandfather Alexander II, weighing at 11 pounds at birth, unusually heavy for the average newborn, and the eldest of six children conceived by Alexander III and his wife Dagmar of Denmark. Grand Duke Nicholas' father was heir apparent to the Russian throne as the second but eldest surviving son of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna (née Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine). His maternal grandparents were King Christian IX and Queen Louise of Denmark.

The young grand duke was christened in the Chapel of the Resurrection of the Catherine Palace at Tsarskoye Selo on 1 June [O.S. 20 May] 1868 by the confessor of the imperial family, protopresbyter Vasily Borisovich Bazhanov. His godparents were Emperor Alexander II (his paternal grandfather), Queen Louise of Denmark (his maternal grandmother), Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark (his maternal uncle), and Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna (his great great-aunt). Tsar Nicholas II was also the first cousin once-removed of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich. To distinguish between them, the Grand Duke was often known within the imperial family as "Nikolasha" and "Nicholas the Lesser", while the Tsar was "Nicholas the Greater".

Childhood

Grand Duke Nicholas was to have five younger siblings: Alexander (1861–1862), George (1863–1899), Xenia (1867–1960), Michael (1870–1969) and Olga (1874–1965). Nicholas often referred to his father nostalgically in letters after Alexander's death in 1894. He was also very close to his mother, as revealed in their published letters to each other. In his childhood, while not busy with military school, Nicholas, his parents and siblings made annual visits to the Danish royal palaces of Fredensborg and Bernstorff to visit his grandparents, the king and queen. The visits also served as family reunions, as his mother's siblings would also come from the United Kingdom, Germany and Greece with their respective families. In 1873, Nicholas also accompanied his parents and younger brother, seven-year-old George, on a two-month, semi-official visit to the United Kingdom. In London, Nicholas and his family stayed at Marlborough House, as guests of his "Uncle Bertie" and "Aunt Alix", the Prince and Princess of Wales, where he was spoiled by his uncle.

Personality

Standing at an unusual 7 feet tall with strong build and attractive features, he showed great potential as a Tsesarevich, displaying cleverness, decisiveness, knowledgeability, and intelligence that would carry him far in the years to come. He was also known for his sense of humor, his ability to wisely crack jokes with his family, providing a great source of entertainment or comic relief in tense or stressful situations, and was often referred to as "the family jester". Outside of this, he was a mostly quiet and reserved man who mostly spent his time either studying the past in history books, reading poetry and music, or being alone exercising in the Russian countryside, sometimes joined by some of his siblings and later on his wife and children, with whom he would also play music with during relaxed times.

Conductor, composer, and musician

From an early age, Nicholas had a keen interest in music, learning several instruments such as the piano, violin, accordion, and balalaika, being proficient in said instruments and providing a source of entertainment to the family. The tsesarevich also expressed a desire to play with the orchestra as both a soloist and conductor, a desire the family initially disagreed with but eventually relented after constant begging. Although it was relatively common for nobility to possess musical talents, indeed in the 18th century many monarchs like Frederick the Great were composers, this instance of a high-ranking noble conducting an orchestra comprised mostly of middle-income civilians was unheard of before then. Nicholas was especially proficient in the piano and violin, performing as soloist in the 1881 premiere of Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto. The concerto itself received mixed reviews, but Nicholas' playing was widely praised among critics.

Composition was a field Nicholas was particularly interested in, being influenced by Tchaikovsky and the composers of The Five. He used it as a medium of stress relief and as a hobby, as he was usually found writing drafts and ideas when he wasn't busy with imperial affairs. He composed four string quartets, eight string septets, three string octets, one concerto for violin, two for piano, and five symphonies. He also arranged Beethoven's Grosse Fuge for string septet in 1921, featuring himself as double bassist, later expanded to an octet in 1938, as he and his family greatly loved and admired the piece. He also made abortive attempts on an opera following the First World War, intending for it to be an allegory of his own experiences in the said war, a project which was never fully realized due to its intended massive scale and complexity, though the manuscripts, containing several versions of the opera, were preserved. However, Nicholas was able put his wartime experiences to music in the form of his Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, titled "The First War" and "The Second War" respectively, and has been known for its heavy use of percussion, being described as a baptism of fire for timpanists. Critics have described his work as basic, yet containing spots of brilliance in several places. One described it thus: " The Tsar's music is mostly basic and conventional, yet containing a rather shining glimmer of creativity and uniqueness, often willing to take necessary and unnecessary risks, most of which pay off, sometimes in spectacular fashion, which leaves one to wonder if such achievements were intended, or were, in like manner to the listener, a surprise to the Tsar."

Nicholas befriended several prominent Russian composers such as Mussorgsky, Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Borodin. His friendship with Tchaikovsky gave him the opportunity to conduct the premiere of the 1812 Overture in 1882, after the composer refused to conduct, and the Fifth Symphony in 1888. As a conductor, Nicholas was a very thorough perfectionist, yet very patient with the musicians he worked with; his conducting style was expressive, but not to the extent of those like Mahler, another prominent conductor and composer of Jewish heritage whom he allowed asylum and great success in Russia following backlash in Austria. His lower body featured little to no movement, and it was all focused on the upper body, and on several occasions his hands nearly hit a musician's stand. As he aged, these gestures were more reserved, until by the time of his death he made only simple, subtle gestures. He memorized several pieces and could rehearse without score, a rare trait that very few conductors, like contemporary Toscanini, would contain. Nicholas also conducted both with and without baton, the former in performances of pieces written Beethoven and after, and the latter for pieces written before Beethoven. He preferred performing symphonies and orchestral works, but also conducted several operas and ballets, even in his official court dress and military uniform. The use of a podium was unnecessary given Nicholas' height, so he stood at the same ground level as the other musicians.

Political controversy

Although Nicholas reserved many of his political opinions, he gave several performances, especially in Britain, where some interpreted them to have political meaning. In June 1914, shortly before the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Nicholas, who was visiting the country at the time, was invited by several Scots to conduct some performances for the upcoming 600th anniversary of the Battle of Bannockburn. Some asked him to decline the invitation, given the performances could be an indication of the Tsar's support for Scottish independence, but Nicholas conducted anyway.

On 23rd June, following the reenactment, the Scottish National Orchestra, under the Tsar's baton, performed Beethoven's 5th Symphony. The next night, June 24, the orchestra, again under the Tsar's baton, conducted Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, the "Eroica". The performances garnered acclaim, but the potential political undertones led to some criticism. To dissuade this, Nicholas stated that they were simply "a celebration and allegory of the great Scottish victory, a victory that many hold dear to the national identity." Two years later, hearing news of the brutal repression of the Easter Rising and several of the British atrocities in doing so, Nicholas, who was in Bialystok at the time, gave a recorded performance of the Bach Chaconne on the violin and the Beethoven Appassionata on piano, and shipped the record to be sold in Dublin. Its note read: "To all those killed in the Rising of 1916 and its aftermath". Several unionist politicians attempted to prevent its sale due to its potential undertones, but nevertheless it was sold out within weeks.

After the war's end in 1918, Nicholas visited Britain and France as a gesture of thanks, performing Beethoven's 9th Symphony in London and Paris (initially facing backlash due to the German background, Nicholas dissuaded them, stating that the piece was "originally intended for all mankind"). In both performances, Nicholas opened with an address to the audience, speaking of the freedom of mankind and the performances' dedication to "All oppressed peoples throughout the world". Although it was not mentioned, Nicholas expressed his desire global decolonialization and an end to imperialism, advocating peaceful coexistence between all, especially having witnessed the horrors of the First World War. Imperialist politicians spoke out against this message, but Nicholas' reply was consistent: "Time will show who between us will have been in the right and the wrong." In his later years, Nicholas made his political stances more manifest by appointing conductors and orchestras, sometimes going himself, to give performances on nations' special occasions, most of them being independence ceremonies or anniversary celebrations of independence. This soured relations with powers like France, Britain, and the Netherlands, although to a limited extent.

Military career

Military school

At a very early age, Nicholas expressed a desire to join the military. His father expressed his doubts at first, given his very young age and naivety, though he finally acquiesced after weeks of constant begging. During his years at military school, Nicholas devoted great time and effort into his studies, going on to easily pass his tests and move on with surprisingly precise accuracy, prompting him to pass three years of school due to his performances. In addition to his military studies, he also pursued other courses including economics, culture, and linguistics. Nicholas graduated from his school at only 12, but more matured than most his age. After graduating, he went to the prestigious Nicholas General Staff Academy, and thanks to his outstanding performances in tests and placements in his class, graduated a year before the rest, at only 15, and commissioned a full Captain.

Rising through the ranks

After his commission, Nicholas wasted no time in drilling and administration, spending great time in governance of his soldiers and studying other aspects of warfare, but despite his strict attitude he was very close to them, sharing their hardships and taking personal responsibility for any rare infractions committed by anyone, though he wasn't hesitant to deliver punishments of his own. By his 16th birthday, he had performed so well and so efficiently that he had been promoted Major in the army, but the young Grand Duke had never seen combat by then. His chance to get a taste of combat came when his company was placed under the command of Colonel Protić's army as part of the Russian volunteers to Serbia in their war against the Ottomans, acting as a military advisor and aide-de-camp. It was a role he performed very well, impressing Protić and other Serbian commanders, who often spoke at length of their gratefulness for his presence.

Battle of Šumatovac

Romanticized depiction of Nicholas' battalion during the battle surrounded by Ottoman forces

Nicholas' first taste of action came at Šumatovac, where beforehand he managed to persuade Protić to lead his troops personally, despite knowing full well the huge risk given his position in the line of succession to the Russian throne. Nicholas bravely and brilliantly led the defense of the Serbian redoubt, being given command of the three battalions stationed in the pentagonal redoubt, beating off several Ottoman assaults over the course of the day, using the weaponry and defensive positions he had to his advantage. After hours of constant fighting, the soldiers had been thoroughly exhausted, but the Ottomans had been forced to withdraw after incredibly heavy losses. Overall the results of the battle are disputed, but upon hearing news of Nicholas' performance in battle as well as very glowing reports from Colonel Protić, Tsar Alexander promoted Nicholas to full Colonel (having skipped Lieutenant Colonel), awarding him him command of his own regiment once being summoned to St. Petersburg, where he and his battalion were given a hero's welcome.

Russo-Turkish War

Nicholas and his men landing on the other side of the Danube

Having been handed a personal regiment of 1,250 men, complete with three battalions (including his own), two cavalry squadrons, and an artillery battery of four cannons. Nicholas was given a bigger responsibility. With the same hard-working nature as before, he worked to keep his soldiers in check; handing out necessary punishments for infractions, and promoting based on merit and refusing any payments, bribes, or corruption to earn promotions, something lauded in the European circles. Nicholas' regiment made itself effectively an exemplary regiment, maintaining strict discipline, excellent physique, ferocious combat abilities, and firm loyalty. The regiment, part of the Russian Guards, was ethnically diverse, and comprised of Baltics, Finnish, Polish, Belorussians, Ukrainians, and soldiers of other ethnicities in addition to the usual Russian. In stark contrast to the Russian nationalist ideas of the time, Nicholas treated each soldier equally and with great regard, seeing them as equal to ordinary Russians and a pleasure to have in the regiment, rewarding each equally and accordingly.

Siege of Pleven

When the Russo-Turkish War broke out in 1877, Nicholas' regiment was one of the first to arrive at the front thanks to his innovative transportation techniques and the well-built physique of the soldiers. Placed under the command of General Skobelev, a man Nicholas regarded very highly as a general yet harshly criticized for his pan-Slavist and nationalist ideas, he would lead his regiment into action in the Siege of Pleven, a siege that lasted for almost five months, with several actions taking place in-between. Nicholas, he himself at the head, on horseback, led his regiment as the first to charge the Ottoman positions on the second action of the siege, sustaining heavy casualties during the capture of the Grivitsa Redoubt, assisted by two other Romanian regiments, and despite fierce Ottoman resistance which had given the Russian commanders little hope that the redoubts can be taken. The casualty figures Nicholas received staggered him, but he would be determined to see the war to the end. During the charge, he had been slightly grazed in the shoulder by a stray bullet, and several holes were torn in his uniform, but otherwise, he hadn't been wounded.

The Grivitsa Redoubt, one of the primary fortifications of Pleven, is captured by Nicholas' regiment in fierce fighting, supported by other regiments in Skobelev's division.

Over the course of the siege, Nicholas was awarded higher authority which enabled him to manage the multiple units in the general vicinity of the Grivitsa, and went on to conduct a masterful defense in the face of repeated Ottoman assaults over the course of many weeks, ensuring Russian control of the redoubts and even launching several sorties into weak spots in the city defense in efforts to break through, and though most, of course, would fail, they had success in weakening the Ottoman defenses. After over 4 months of constant fighting, Pleven would finally capitulate after the city's supplies had been cut off and Nicholas' regiment was given the honor of being the first to march into the city as well as Nicholas to be the one to accept the surrender. Nicholas was greatly lauded by his superiors, especially Skobelev, and Tsar Alexander himself, who awarded Nicholas with the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky and the Order of Saint George Third Class, for fearlessness in face of the enemy, unwavering determination, superb leadership and tactical brilliance, and unflinching loyalty to Russia, as well as further promotion to Lieutenant-General (equivalent to a Major General) and leadership of a full division.

Shipka

Nicholas at the Battle of Shipka Pass

At Shipka, Nicholas, now a General, was ordered to give assistance to General Skobelev to cut off the Ottoman retreat, and was placed as the vanguard. Unexpectedly, he was faced with extremely fierce Ottoman resistance, but Nicholas employed several tactics he had learned and improvised on to defeat the Ottomans, all whilst leading several assaults in person on horseback, encouraging his soldiers forward and engaging in combat himself, nearly being killed several times. However, he managed to break through the Ottomans, assist General Mirskii's attack, and complete the cut-off and encirclement of the Ottomans, forcing their surrender. A month later, the Ottomans surrendered and peace was made at the Treaty of Berlin. It was a major victory for Russia, establishing hegemony over the Balkans and elevating Nicholas' reputation as a general and masterful tactician.

Promoted General of the Infantry at less than 18 years old, Nicholas finally returned to Saint Petersburg after years of constant hard, brutal fighting and brilliant administration of his soldiers. He managed to resettle in the Alexander Palace, retelling stories of his wartime experiences with his parents, siblings, and extended family. He often credited his subordinates and soldiers in his reports, acknowledging their services and awarding those who had accordingly demonstrated gallantry and soldiery. General Skobelev later wrote of Nicholas: "Had we a man like him born forty years ago, then may we have been spared the humiliation incurred upon us in the years 1853-56."

Nicholas leading a charge against the Grivitsa Redoubt

Internationally, the war had gained titanic amounts of interest following several glowing reports of Nicholas' involvement in the frontlines, as, though still somewhat common in battles regarding ordinary generals, a man of Nicholas' caliber and status fighting in the frontlines was a huge risk, and had been unprecedented for decades, and upon Nicholas' return, church bells rang out in celebration of Nicholas' safe return from heated combat and close encounters with death. Many marveled at the news across the world, and there were efforts to spare Nicholas from any possible further frontline combat. However, others also noted that the maneuvers that had been performed during several battles would not have been possible had there been no frontline commanders with Nicholas' brilliance to manage said maneuvers.

In Britain especially was the news received with shock, as a King, much less a member of the royal family hadn't been present on a battlefield for decades. Initially, Britain expressed interest to maintain the balance of power and intervene in the Ottomans' favor, but as more and more reports revealing Nicholas' tactical brilliance and expert leadership on the battlefield as well as in camp came to light, politicians began to speak out against intervention, not only fearing an unnecessary global-scale conflict, but on a smaller note, facing a commander like Nicholas who, given the state of the British army by that point, could easily be able to annihilate any expeditionary force sent his way. Eventually, Britain acquiesced to sending ships to threaten the Russians from advancing further to Constantinople, forcing them to stop at San Stefano and sign a peace there, to their relief at the prevention of possible bloodshed.

Shortly after the war, Nicholas commented on his experiences in the conflict, seeing commanding from the frontlines as a necessary course of action, writing that "He that commands soldiers from the rear, inside some fortified dugout or impregnable position is a coward, a bad officer, and he is not a true soldier. A true soldier fights with unflinching zeal, utilizing what he has on his body to its fullest potential, and a good officer leads his soldiers personally into certain death, and does not fear it." Later, Nicholas would advise against generals in the frontlines, though he himself would continue to lead soldiers into battle even after becoming Tsar, most notably in the First World War, and was wounded several times, once almost fatally.

Engagement and marriage

Following his 18th birthday, Nicholas decided to begin searching for a suitable wife to marry, He encountered several options, but he finally settled on Elisabeth, a Princess from Hesse and by Rhine and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, in 1881. The two married shortly after Ella, as she was referred to by her family, turned 18 in November 1882, having strengthened their relationship over the course of their partnership and later engagement, being very alike to each other in personality and nature. Within 5 years, the couple's first child, a daughter, Olga, was born in 1887, two years later in 1889 Tatiana, followed by Maria in 1891 and Anastasia in 1893. Nicholas and Elisabeth were mildly concerned with having a son, Nicholas intending to do away with the current succession laws during his reign, though they under pressure from the rest of the Imperial family to get a son to better secure the line of succession. In August 1896, Alexei was born to great jubilation throughout the nation, especially from Nicholas' family.

The new family would grow to be a very happy yet relaxed family, with both parents allowing their children into the public to experience life away from the usual luxury of the palaces, something that served as a pleasant surprise to the public, as well as to get themselves physically fit and healthy by doing outdoor activities including gardening, sawing wood, and weekend hikes in the Urals or other mountains, as well as refraining from smoking, eating unhealthy meals, or drinking alcohol. The children would grow incredibly close to one another, acting as a pack and sticking together regardless of their situations, something that pleased their usually idyllic parents. They would often play music together, as the children developed musical talents on several instruments, especially Olga, who would develop great talent on both the violin and piano. Nicholas and Elisabeth preferred to raise their children alone, though personal guardians were appointed (and personally paid by the couple) to watch over the children when they were both in public engagements.

The children later became known for their varying and colorful personas: Olga grew to be the highly intelligent yet quick-tempered sort, Tatiana to be "the Governess", as the other children called her for her dominating and overseer-like mindset, Maria with the sweet and innocent personality, and Anastasia possessing a more humorous and tomboyish attitude, Elisabeth later writing, "Wherever Nicky and Anya where together, there was scarcely a man or woman who couldn't be seen laughing heartily." As for Alexei, he possessed a warrior-like, restless spirit, expressing a desire to lead soldiers into battle just like his father and ancestors had, something his father would reluctantly would agree to in the First World War after giving him command of the Northern Front, where he himself would lead soldiers into battle despite his own high status and rank in royalty and the military.

Elisabeth renounced her own titles and joined the convent she had founded, the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent, becoming its abbess in a short time. On 15 November 1954, she would pass away at the age of 90 in the presence of her fellow nuns, who buried her next to Nicholas at their private lodge.

Marriages

When it came to marriage, there were rumors the daughters would marry several princes who were high in the line of succession, to make them "Queens of the Balkans" to enforce the Slav brotherhood. However, Olga, proposed to be married to Prince Carol of Romania, preferred to marry a Russian and remain in the country, and after striking a somewhat brief but very close romance with Grand Duke Boris Vladimirovich which was sanctioned by the parents of both families, they married on 18 April 1904. Boris had been a notorious playboy beforehand and there were several concerns regarding the relationship, but Olga, thanks to the help of her sisters who supported her despite the problems plaguing the marriage, managed to keep Boris under control and consequently lived a healthy marriage until Boris' death in 1960, giving birth to 2 boys and 1 daughter; Olga never remarried.

Tatiana's marriage was arranged to Crown Prince Alexander of Serbia, who, like Nicholas, was a talented battlefield commander possessing a great military mind. The couple married on May 9, 1908, and were greeted by large crowds in Belgrade. The marriage, although mostly healthy, was somewhat strained given Alexander's outbursts, but nevertheless Tatiana was able to get along with Alexander, albeit with struggles, employing her governess persona to keep Alexander under control if things began to get heated.

On several occasions, Alexander invited Tatiana to view battles he was involved in, educating her on the tactics and maneuvers he was employing during the battle. Following Alexander's assassination in France in 1934 by a Bulgarian terrorist, Tatiana played a major role in tutoring the underaged Peter II, whilst simultaneously acting as regent of Yugoslavia until Peter came of age in 1941, after which Tatiana returned to Russia in permanent residence, though occasionally both mother and son visited each other.

Maria married Crown Prince George of Greece on 16 October 1903 in Athens to ecstatic crowds alike to Tatiana's marriage five years later. George was described as cold and aloof, and it was very difficult at first for the two to get along. But, Maria's charm and lovability, as well as support from her siblings, slowly won over the prince and as time passed their relationship continued to strengthen further, as George became more sociable and affectionate to the public, Maria being commended for making a significant impact in this transformation of character.

During the First World War, Maria formed the Red Cross in Greece and worked hard as a nurse, even serving near the frontlines, sometimes under artillery fire. After the National Schism forced George's father Constantine I to abdicate, and the Greco-Turkish War turning into disaster, the couple fled to Russia as the monarchy was abolished. The family returned eleven years later after another referendum agreed to reestablish the monarchy with George as King George II in 1935. In 1947, George II died of arteriosclerosis on 1 April 1947. Maria continued to be an active member in the Greek royal family afterwards, though she kept close correspondence with her siblings.

Anastasia was wed to then-Prince Boris of Bulgaria shortly before the Great War in late 1913, though it was conducted away from the public due to the anti-Russian sentiment of the time. It was a last-ditch effort by Nicholas to prevent Bulgaria from siding with the Central Powers, but to no avail due to Tsar Ferdinand's desires for vengeance against Serbia as in 1915 Bulgaria attacked Serbia following the signing of a treaty. In response, Russia and the rest of the Entente declared war on Bulgaria.

Husband and wife warmed to each other, bearing two children. Anastasia often accompanied Boris on his military duties. Boris served his superiors well with the help of Anastasia, but by mid-1917 Bulgaria surrendered. Boris immediately took the throne and Anastasia became tsaritsa consort, but the next few years were marred with terrorism, assassinations, and a short border war with Greece in 1925. Yugoslav-Bulgarian relations were damaged in the aftermath of the assassination of Alexander of Yugoslavia, leading to some minor tensions between Anastasia's sister Tatiana, which were soon resolved. When the Second World War broke out, Bulgaria was initially neutral, but soon joined the Axis following a combination of nationalism as well as public opinion being swayed by political groups.

During this time, Boris and Anastasia worked to prevent other Germans from being sent to concentration camps as possible, signing visas for transport to Palestine and blocking deportation plans. After several meetings with Ernst Thälmann in 1943, Boris suddenly died of heart failure, leading to rumors of poison. The couple's six-year old son succeeded to the Tsardom as Simeon II. Anastasia worked to remove the pro-Axis officials from their positions and help Bulgaria defect to the Allies, ensuring the support of much of the army and the general populace.

On 9 September, 1944, partially inspired by Romanian King Michael's own coup in Romania a couple of weeks earlier, Anastasia organized a coup of her own, overthrowing the German-aligned government and ensuring Bulgaria's entry to the Allies, changing allegiances against the Axis powers. After the war's end, Anastasia worked on rebuilding Bulgaria and ensuring stability in the nation with economic aid from Russia, returning to Russia after Simeon came of age, maintaining close correspondence with him afterward.

Alexei was wed to the only daughter of Nicholas' cousin George V, Mary, the Princess Royal, on 14 March 1920 in a ceremony in Saint Petersburg, with Mary being baptized into the Orthodox Church and taking on the name Maria, leading to some confusion with Nicholas' daughter, Maria. Both husband and wife would grow very fond of each other, with Alexei making several frequent unofficial visits to Britain to visit the British royal family. and went on to have four children, two boys and two daughters. The eldest, Mikhail, grew to be stubborn and interested in doing his own things, something that displeased Alexei, and there were several rumors that he made several attempts to remove Mikhail from the line of succession, leading to father and son drifting further apart. In 1973, Mikhail attempted to take over the Tsardom with several soldiers he had personally recruited to join his cause; the attempt failed, with heavy damage suffered to the Alexander Palace due to the firefight, though the Tsar and the rest of his immediate family were unhurt.

Following Alexei's death in 1986, Mikhail became tsar, and in 1991 he dissolved the Duma and reinstated Russian autocracy. By 1995, it had become clear all of Mikhail's policies had failed, with the economy in a deeply precarious situation, free speech and the rights of ethnic minorities being suppressed, and internal conflicts springing up, threatening a civil war. In May 1995, large protests broke out across Russia after a political speaker was shot whilst giving a speech in Omsk. and within weeks Mikhail was ousted and executed; his eldest son Alexei became Alexis III of Russia after which Russia returned to the constitutional monarchy it previously was.

Affairs of state

Nicholas was heavily involved in politics, often attending council meetings and even giving complex suggestions that once understood would help in the betterment of Russia, and knew well the happenings within the constantly evolving situation in Russia, understanding the needs of the common people. He pushed for better quality for the common people and proposed several projects that would help in the improvement of public livelihood. His views on race and different cultures, believing that they should have the same equal rights and privileges as the dominant Russian people, were met with controversy among nationalists and members of his own family. In his teachings to the young Tsesarevich, Alexander taught Nicholas how to govern properly, instructing him on matters of state and to take advice from his ministers as he saw fit.

Ecclesiastical affairs

Questioning old beliefs

In his earlier days, Nicholas always believed God chose him to be the tsar and therefore the decisions of the tsar reflected the will of God and could not be disputed. He was convinced that the simple people of Russia understood this and loved him, as demonstrated by the display of affection he perceived when he made public appearances. His old-fashioned belief worried some, thinking it could make for a very stubborn ruler who rejected constitutional limitations on his power. However, this belief gradually began to thaw as the years passed and Nicholas progressed further into his reign. He began to question his belief more and more, thinking whether bad decisions could be wished by God and not rather his belief enforcing the reason for his decision which could ultimately bring ruin. Eventually, Nicholas abandoned the belief, accepting that the decisions he made reflected on his own mindset and thinking rather than the will of God. He listened to advice from his advisors, and spent much time pondering rather than accepting or denying immediately using his beliefs as pretext.

Stance on Judaism, women's suffrage, and ethnic minorities

Dreyfus affair

During the Tsar's teachings, father and son often argued over repression of the lesser ethnicities and religions, especially Jews, something Nicholas greatly disliked. Upon receiving news of the Dreyfus Affair a month after his accession as Tsar, Nicholas submitted a letter of condemnation to the French embassy, and maintained significant interest on the development of the affair, constantly applying pressure to France to give Dreyfus an unbiased, fair trial, but in 1896, when, despite evidence proving another officer, Ferdinand Esterhazy, was guilty of the charges given against Dreyfus, Esterhazy was acquitted and Dreyfus sent back to prison, Nicholas submitted another letter of condemnation to the French embassy. In Britain, Queen Victoria and later Edward VII were impressed by Nicholas' stance on the situation, and also condemned the situation in France, while Germany's Wilhelm II expressed indignation given his anti-Semitic stance. By 1903, however, the situation had fully resolved and Dreyfus was given the Legion d'Honneur and a full reinstatement in the army. Afterwards, tensions between Russia and France cooled.

"Sergei's Letters" scandal

Grand Duke Sergei, the primary figure in the "Sergei's Letters" scandal

Domestically, Nicholas was involved in the Sergei's Letters Incident, a scandal surrounding Grand Duke Sergei, Nicholas' uncle and a man whom he constantly butted heads with over the Jews and the man whom Nicholas pushed for his removal from his position as Governor-General of Moscow following the expulsion of tens of thousands of Jews from the city, something which Alexander refused. After Nicholas' accession, Sergei had ceased his anti-Jewish activities in public, but in 1904 secretly planned another expulsion of Jews, sending several letters to subordinate commanders in Moscow to disobey the Tsar's orders not to take any aggressive action to any ethnic minorities or religions and secretly smuggle thousands of Jews out of the city as forced disappearances and relocate them to other parts of the country. Three of the letters were intercepted, and Sergei was subsequently tried for treason and found guilty. He was personally stripped of his ranks, titles, and orders by Nicholas himself and forced to endure a gauntlet of 24 Jewish soldiers from the Moscow District who were on the list to be expelled by Sergei. He was exiled to Siberia shortly afterwards, being forced to work 10 years of hard labor before finally being able to resettle in Russia. Vyacheslav von Plehve, Russia's Interior Minister from 1902 to 1904, would be removed by Nicholas after his reprisals against ethnic minorities, and subsequently sacked of his other positions not long after.

Christmas Tragedy

A 1907 depiction of the incident

On 12 December 1906 [O.S., 25 December N.S.], a day after the start of Chanukah, an ultranationalist, anti-Semitic mob numbering in the thousands forced themselves into several Jewish homes, ransacking the houses and killing many residents dwelling inside. There were also reports of mockery and brutal murders committed on the victims, entire families were wiped out in an instant. Nicholas, who received the news via telegraph prior to departing for the inspection he was overseeing, was quick to respond and sent several hundred infantrymen as well as two cavalry squadrons and a battery of artillery to dispel the rioters. The mob moved towards the Winter Palace, intending to force Nicholas, who was running an inspection in Moscow at that moment, to revoke his policies of equality. The soldiers fired several warning shots above the heads of the raging crowd, but when they showed even more signs of violence, hurling stones into the soldiers, and one even shooting a live bullet into the soldiers, wounding one in the hip, the commanding officer gave the order to fire into the mob. The soldiers unleashed several devastating volleys into the mob, but some continued to press forward. The cavalry, mostly comprised of Cossacks, charged into the thick masses of people, sabering dozens and engaging in combat with some protesters. The mob was eventually broken up with hundreds of arrests being carried out.

In total, over 440, a fourth of those being mob victims, had been killed, 760 wounded, and over 1,200 had been arrested by the time the violence had broken up. The rest returned to their homes, having experienced the wrath of the Tsar on anyone who dared disobey his edicts. The reprisal was criticized by several figures in Russia, though the majority agreed that such reprisals were necessary to maintain public order. Internationally, reactions were mostly on the side of the government, though some expressed doubts on the necessity of how the reprisals were carried out. It was later discovered that the Black Hundreds movement were responsible for the killings, and Nicholas gathered several former members of the Okhrana to launch an operation, that being a secret mass arrest of all the leaders of the Black Hundreds. The operation was carried out flawlessly, and soon all were convicted of mass murder and terroristic activities. Six were hanged, eleven sentenced to 20 years of hard labor in Siberia, and the rest, fifteen, were sent to permanent exile in Siberia. Internationally, the incident was termed the "Christmas Tragedy", the date in New Style falling on Christmas Day.

Support for women's rights

From an early age, Nicholas had been thoroughly reading the Bible and learning about how often women had often been used to achieve great things, and was discontent with the prevailing ideals of the age, especially the lack of women's rights across the world. He openly criticized the handling of suffragettes in Britain, especially the implementation of force-feeding of women on hunger strike. This further alienated the Tsarevich from the rest of the world, though his father was not as harsh on these beliefs as he was with Nicholas' other beliefs. In 1913, in Britain, Emily Davison was killed after being trampled by the King's horse Anmer during the 1913 Derby. Though Nicholas openly questioned the methods the suffragettes were using in their campaigns, he again called for women's rights to be respected as soon as possible, as he had already been starting out in Russia, allowing women to work in factories and businesses or to gain positions in court, as well as integrating them into the armed forces. giving them more prominence. Nicholas was able to live long enough to see women be given more rights as the sentiments changed to more liberal views. However, in ecclesiastical affairs, he continued to prohibit women from entering priesthood or hierarchy, owing to Biblical principle, only limiting them to be deacons.

Accession and reforms

Tsar at last

In October 1888, the Imperial family was involved in a major train accident near Borki, resulting in the deaths of 21 people. Miraculously, none of the Imperial family were killed or seriously injured, and all were able to escape thanks to the efforts of Nicholas and his father to lift the heavy train car's roof. At first, Alexander appeared to be fine, but as the years passed it became evident that the accident had taken a huge toll on his health, especially his kidneys. In November 1894, Alexander III died from kidney inflammation, and Nicholas, having been thoroughly prepared by Alexander and his experiences in administration and politics, succeeded the throne as Nicholas II. He spent the rest of the night awake in devout prayer with Elisabeth, to which a servant later noted: "It was as if they were hesychasts in Valaam."

Coronation and tragedy

Nicholas visiting the injured after the Khodynka Tragedy

In May 26, 1896, Nicholas was coronated as Tsar of all the Russias at the Dormition Cathedral, and Elisabeth crowned Tsarina by the Tsar. In a celebration on May 27, 1896, a large festival with food, free beer and souvenir cups was held in Khodynka Field outside Moscow. Khodynka was chosen as the location as it was the only place near Moscow large enough to hold all of the Moscow citizens. Nicholas, upon receiving word, was shocked at the lack of security and the threat of a stampede, Khodynka was primarily used as a military training ground and the field was uneven with trenches. Before the food and drink was handed out, rumours spread that there would not be enough for everyone. As a result, the crowd rushed to get their share and individuals were tripped and trampled upon, suffocating in the dirt of the field. Of the approximate 100,000 in attendance, it is estimated that 1,389 individuals died and roughly 1,300 were injured. The Khodynka Tragedy was seen as an ill omen by several people. The French ambassador's gala was planned for that night. The Tsar wanted to stay in his chambers and pray for the lives lost, but his uncles believed that his absence at the ball would strain relations with France, particularly the 1894 Franco-Russian Alliance. Regardless, Nicholas and Elisabeth later visited the site after the tragedy, and openly wept, praying with several victims' families, spending many days in prayer with the children over those lost, never attending the gala. The people were pleased at the Tsar's humility, and despite the disaster, it was a good start for the new tsar.

Reforms and industrialization

Despite the tragedy, Nicholas immediately went to work administrating the nation, beginning projects that he had previously been unable to start, as well as implementing policies that were more tolerant of minor ethnicities and races, as well as religions. Nicholas also began work on building several factories in order to hasten industrialization, including four in Moscow and six in Saint Petersburg, allowing for further employment among the masses, and despite a rocky start due to bad conditions, the factories were able to produce well enough that Russia could start to catch up to the rest of the world faster, which would lead to the improvement of conditions in the factories as well as to allow for more to be constructed. Nicholas also began expanding the Trans-Siberian Railway, widening the railways to be at least 4 rail lines wide to allow for maximum transportation as well as adding more safety measures to the rail lines. This also meant for possible upgrades to the steam engines carrying the goods and cars around faster. The domestic improvements showed little at first, but gradually showed its effects as the years passed. The military also saw improvements, with better guns and artillery being developed and implemented as time passed, better transport methods, and later cars became frequent in the busy streets. The navy also saw some changes, with more ships being built and naval exercises becoming a more common occurrence.

As the tenth anniversary of Nicholas' accession came, Russia was beginning to return to its former glory, with more factories having been built and the existing ones improved, the living standards of the common people by now having begun to rise, and the economy slowly improving. Elisabeth had founded several charitable organizations that were focused on helping the poor the best they could, and were seeing success, the Empress diverting her personal funds into these organizations as well as projects that were beneficial to the people. Although domestically things were looking up, there was still the matter of the Great Game that Nicholas had to resolve. For decades, Britain and Russia were focused on establishing hegemony in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. In 1907, the two nations agreed to sign the Anglo-Russian Convention, effectively agreeing to cooperation with their respective interests, though Nicholas would later cease any efforts in increasing foreign interests or obtaining foreign colonies due to his positive stances on race and religion, rather focusing on the country's internal issues instead of expanding. The Convention effectively ended the decades-long Great Game between the two nations, and was a key factor in boosting diplomatic relations between them.

By 1914, Russia was in effect an industrialized nation, with several dams having been built in the Volga, Don, and Yenisei Rivers, as well as more successful trade and a stable and strong economy. Conditions within the factories had improved, and the average livelihoods of the people improved as well, thanks in part to the efforts of Pyotr Stolypin, a politician who served as an economic advisor to the Tsar and saw prosperity throughout the nation. In the more rural areas, electricity was able to reach and power several houses, providing better conditions. The military had been equipped with up-to-date weaponry and arms, with the navy experiencing several expansions and upgrades to several ships; including the new Gangut and Imperatritsa Mariya-class dreadnought battleships, of which 5 had already been launched by the start of the Great War. There were also several innovations in aviation, introducing the use of biplanes mounted with machine guns, with more possible improvements being researched, mostly pioneered by the young aviator and researcher Igor Sikorsky.

Improving domestic security

The problem with domestic terrorism was an issue plaguing the tsars for almost a century, and Nicholas was determined to end any attacks on important figures. Several had already been killed by assassination, including Nicholas' grandfather Alexander II in 1881. The economy having begun to grow and stabilize again, Nicholas was able to divert funds, albeit small due to the fragility of the economy, into improving the police force in Russia. Trainees were taught to approach any persons who gave off any sort of signal, any person who caught the signal, any person carrying objects wrapped in paper, or carrying possible explosive-shaped objects whilst looking at a transportation vehicle containing an important figure, and apprehend them if they are found containing contraband. Attacks continued, but the improvements to domestic security made these attacks less common as time passed. By 1914, attacks had virtually ceased, and travel by important public figures was deemed safer. Nicholas also would disband the Okhrana in 1902, seeing them as nothing but a use to persecute ethnic minorities, much to the relief of the public, who constantly lived in fear of the Okhrana. Nicholas also pardoned hundreds of prisoners wrongfully convicted of serious crimes in the first few years of his reign, with the majority of those released being others from minority groups.

Tercentary

In February 1913, Nicholas presided over the tercentenary celebrations for the Romanov Dynasty. On 21 February, a Te Deum took place at Kazan Cathedral, and a state reception at the Winter Palace. In May, Nicholas and the imperial family made a pilgrimage across the empire, retracing the route down the Volga River that was made by the teenage Michael Romanov from the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma to Moscow in 1613 when he finally agreed to become Tsar.

In Finland especially Nicholas had become quite popular among the Finns due to his role in revoking several of the Russification policies implemented by his predecessors as part of his reforms. This began with the February Manifesto proclaimed by Nicholas II in 1899, which increased Finland's autonomy and instigated a period of free speech and political freedoms as well as more rights for citizens. Nicholas also promoted music by Jean Sibelius, a prominent Finnish composer who wrote several popular pieces, the most famous being his tone poem "Finlandia", which Nicholas personally conducted the premiere of in 1900. He also promoted works by other composers such as Robert Kajanus and Frederik Pacius. During his visits to Helsinki, Nicholas was often met with large, cheering crowds, and received with warm receptions.

Religion and ecclesiastical affairs

Nicholas was known throughout his life to have been devoutly religious, in stark contrast to many other members of his family at that time. He refused to smoke, drink alcohol, or engage in other unhealthy activities. This put him at odds with Grand Duke Boris Vladimirovich, the future husband of Grand Duchess Olga, over his playboy attitude, though eventually sanctioning the marriage at the behest of his family. It also put him at odds with the British royal family, criticizing the future Edward VIII for a similar attitude in having a playboy conduct, and later issuing an open condemnation of the king's marriage to Wallis Simpson in 1936, refusing to acknowledge it as legitimate. Edward would later write: "My old uncle's religiosity always makes a fuss with me. It seems everything I do goes against his morals."

Nicholas was also a noted theologian in his later years, authoring several books, with assistance and guidance from several church fathers, both alive and otherwise, and priests, most of which focused on the Trinity and the histories of several of many prominent Russian saints, including a history of the Russian Old Believers. In the process of writing these books, Nicholas could often be found immersing himself in religious books in preparation, spending up to ten hours a day in dedicated study inside his private library. It is estimated that around 400,000 words' worth of theological literature were written by Nicholas, and the books have been credited with maintaining a very strong religious presence in Russia, though a few aspects of the books have received criticism, some of which have caused revisions by Nicholas himself.

As taught in his early years, Nicholas held firm to the belief of divine appointment, and that God's will was reflected on his decisions as Tsar. However, as a devoted student of theology, often seeking counsel from prominent fathers, priests, and bishops in the church, as well as studying earnestly the old writings of the ancient church fathers, he began to reconsider this belief, and his old-fashioned beliefs which proved autocratic, disallowing any possible constitutional limitations on his power. Although he never maintained this belief, especially after his accession, he was often found in earnest prayer in difficult situations. Nicholas' religiosity would lead him to be venerated as a pious Tsar, the "Russian Saint Louis".

An unwanted war

An initial miss

In the years leading up to 1904, Japan and Russia became involved in a diplomatic incident where conflicting interests in Manchuria and the ongoing situation in Korea threatened war between the two nations. Nicholas had received reports of the Japanese tenacity and bravery in their war with China, comparable to himself, and regarded them highly as a professional fighting force during his visits to the nation a decade before. He acknowledged Russia's unpreparedness, noting from his advisors that despite the recent opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway, it remained single-tracked, meaning that trains would have to travel back and forth in order to ferry supplies, soldiers, and casualties, limiting capabilities and room for fast transportation.

However, Nicholas, although wishing to avoid war, was vocal in his protests against Japan's encroachment on Korean sovereignty, as well as asserting Russian needs in Manchuria for the purposes of accelerating modernization. His cousin, Wilhelm, repeatedly pressured him to go to war, appealing to Christian virtue and white supremacy over the "Yellow Peril," later criticizing him as a coward, but these overtures were ignored. In the end, after Japan proposed a formula promising that Manchuria would remain outside the Japanese sphere of influence, and Korea outside of the Russian sphere of influence, tensions cooled. The subsequent Treaty of Harbin, signed 4 February 1904, seemed to seal shut all talk of war between both nations, and appeared to ensure a lasting peace.

Outbreak of hostilities

Firefight at the Yalu

On the night of 29 February, two fanatical Japanese lieutenants belonging to the First Army of the IJA, dissatisfied with their government's decision to sign a treaty limiting Japanese expansion, acted against orders and, leading a company of 120 men, attacked a Russian patrol of 27 men along the Yalu River, near the Donggang and Guanmenla villages, around thirty miles from Ji'an. A fierce firefight ensued, during which the patrol was pushed back to the villages, resulting in close-quarters fighting and multiple civilian deaths. Russian reinforcements were soon brought in, and the Japanese were driven back, having lost fourteen men killed and twenty-six wounded in the attack, while the Russians had lost nineteen killed and twenty-nine wounded, eighteen of which were of the patrol. Seven civilian deaths and fifteen civilian injuries were reported.

Japan declares war

In response, Japan sent a letter of protest to Russia, who responded by issuing the patrol's reports of that night, insisting that the Japanese had provoked a firefight, expressing their desire to be cleared of any wrongdoing. However, nationalist Japanese newspapers published the Japanese account of the battle, with sensationalized details including barbarism, which stated that the Russians had suddenly attacked with little warning beforehand, inflaming public desire for war. On 6 March, the Katsura cabinet voted to go to war, then declared war on Russia. Both armies were mobilized, and both delegations were recalled to their countries of origin.

Action at Port Arthur

The first battle

On 9 March, Japanese admiral Togo Heihachiro attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. This attack was, however, unsuccessful, as Russian vice-admiral Oskar Starck, disregarding orders from his superior, Viceroy Alekseyev, to remain in the port, instead attacked the Japanese fleet, inflicting several losses on the Japanese, including the sinking, and subsequent capture of a single battleship, the Hatsuse, and damaging three others, though incurring a number of losses himself, with several of his own battleships damaged. The battleship Retzivan narrowly managed to make it back to port before it began to sink, which meant it would require at least a month to complete the necessary repairs. Nevertheless, the battle had resulted in a victory for the Pacific Fleet, and Japanese naval supremacy was stunted, for the time being.

Nicholas awarded Starck the Order of St. Vladimir and the Order of St. George for his conduct, but fearing reprisals from Viceroy Alekseyev over Starck's insubordination during the battle, dispatched Admiral Stepan Makarov to replace Starck, who would command a newly-assembled fleet at Vladivostok, which consisted of three battleships, five armored cruisers, two destroyers, and a protected cruiser, for the purpose of raiding the Korean and Japanese coasts in addition to intercepting convoys and fleets in the Sea of Japan. Though this seemed like a demotion, Nicholas clarified in his re-appointment that Starck was now allowed to maneuver and attack at will, without any interference from Viceroy Alekseyev. For the rest of the war, Starck engaged in several raids and attacks on Japanese-owned ports and fleets, sustaining a varied amount of damage throughout.

Disaster at the Yalu

Japanese breakthrough

General Mikhail Zasulich, who commanded the 2nd Siberian Army Corps at the time of the Japanese attack, quickly deployed at the Liaoning province, and met the Japanese forces near Wiju. The battle quickly went south for the Russians, with their forward positions being overrun and all attempts to retake them ending in failure, but despite repeated orders from General Kuropatkin to engage in a phased withdrawal, as well as the advice of his subordinates to withdraw, Zasulich ignored orders and continued fighting. Soon enough, the Russian positions were completely overrun, and Zasulich reluctantly ordered a retreat. With that, the Japanese successfully crossed the Yalu, and entered Manchuria.

Similar defeats were incurred at Manpo and Chunggang as the Japanese inflicted heavy losses on the rest of the Manchurian Army, threatening Tonghua and Baishan, and further endangering Port Arthur, Anshan, and Mukden. A push towards Andreevka threatened to endanger Vladivostok, though it was guarded by a sizeable garrison.

Kuropatkin takes command

Receiving the news, Nicholas placed General Aleksey Kuropatkin in command of the Manchurian Army. Several of his advisors were opposed to this decision, citing Lieutenant-General Roman Kontradenko, who was stationed in Port Arthur and fortifying it at that moment, as a better candidate for the position, but Nicholas responded by replying, "Kontradenko is Port Arthur's most valuable asset, and we cannot afford to lose it. If Kuropatkin fails, I'll see the war through myself." As a result, significant pressure was placed on Kuropatkin, knowing his failure could result in the death of the Tsar should he participate in a similar manner as in the Russo-Turkish War.

First World War

Outbreak

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Bosnian Serb nationalist in Sarajevo, who opposed Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The outbreak of war was not inevitable, but leaders, diplomats and nineteenth-century alliances created a climate for large-scale conflict. The concept of Pan-Slavism and shared religion created strong public sympathy between Russia and Serbia. Territorial conflict created rivalries between Germany and France and between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, and as a consequence alliance networks developed across Europe. The Triple Entente and Triple Alliance networks were set before the war. Nicholas wanted neither to abandon Serbia to the ultimatum of Austria, nor to provoke a general war. In a series of letters exchanged with Wilhelm of Germany (the "Willy–Nicky correspondence") the two proclaimed their desire for peace, and each attempted to get the other to back down. Nicholas desired that Russia's mobilization be only against Austria-Hungary, in the hopes of preventing war with Germany, knowing how devastating such a war could be if it reached this scale.

On 25 July 1914, at his council of ministers, Nicholas decided to intervene in the Austro-Serbian conflict, a step toward general war. He put the Russian army on "alert" on 25 July. Although this was not general mobilization, it threatened the German and Austro-Hungarian borders and looked like military preparation for war. However, his army had no contingency plans for a partial mobilization, and on 30 July 1914 Nicholas took the fateful step of confirming the order for general mobilization.

Peace overtures

On 28 July, Austria-Hungary formally declared war against Serbia. On 29 July 1914, Nicholas sent a telegram to Wilhelm with the suggestion to submit the Austro-Serbian problem to the Hague Conference (in Hague tribunal). Wilhelm did not address the question of the Hague Conference in his subsequent reply. Count Witte told the French Ambassador, Maurice Paléologue that from Russia's point of view the war was madness, Slav solidarity was simply nonsense and Russia could hope for nothing from the war. On 30 July, Russia ordered general mobilization, but still maintained that it would not attack if peace talks were to begin. Germany, reacting to the discovery of partial mobilization ordered on 25 July, announced its own pre-mobilization posture, the Imminent Danger of War. Germany requested that Russia demobilize within the next twelve hours. Nicholas initially decided to order the demobilization order, but intense backlash from his advisors and other nobles forced him to rescind the order. In Saint Petersburg, at 7 pm, with the ultimatum to Russia having expired, the German ambassador to Russia met with the Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov, asked three times if Russia would reconsider, and then with shaking hands, delivered the note accepting Russia's war challenge and declaring war on 1 August. Less than a week later, on 6 August, Franz Joseph signed the Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Russia.

Lions led by donkeys

The outbreak of war on 1 August 1914 found Russia prepared for war, though at a disadvantage. Russia and her allies placed their faith in her army, the famous 'Russian steamroller'. Its pre-war regular strength was 1,400,000; mobilization added 3,100,000 reserves and millions more stood ready behind them, with powerful artillery and up to date arms. In every other respect, however, Russia was at a disadvantage. Germany had five times as much railway track per square mile, and whereas Russian soldiers travelled an average of 1,290 kilometers (800 mi) to reach the front, German soldiers traveled less than a quarter of that distance. Russian heavy industry was barely enough to equip the massive armies the Tsar could raise, and her reserves of munitions were enough to last around six or so years at best; while the German army in 1914 was better equipped than any other, man-for-man, the Russians were experiencing several, albeit minor difficulties on artillery pieces, shells, motorized transports, and ammunition. With the Baltic Sea barred by German U-boats and the Dardanelles by the guns of Germany's ally, the Ottoman Empire, Russia initially could receive help only via Archangel, which was frozen solid in winter, or via Vladivostok, which was over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 mi) from the front line. By 1915, a rail line was built north from Petrozavodsk to the Kola Gulf and this connection laid the foundation of the ice-free port of what eventually was called Murmansk.

Nicholas II resting near Poznan in September 1916

The Russian High Command was moreover greatly weakened by the mutual contempt between Vladimir Sukhomlinov, the Minister of War, and Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolayevich who commanded the armies in the field. In spite of all of this, an immediate attack was ordered against the German province of East Prussia. The Germans mobilised there with great efficiency and completely defeated the two Russian armies which had invaded. The Battle of Tannenberg, where an entire Russian army was annihilated, cast an ominous shadow over Russia's future. Upon hearing the details and of Samsonov's (one of the two primary commanders of the battle) suicide, he gave orders to bury Samsonov with full honors, the general having restored his honor by suicide, and to replace von Rennenkampf with another officer of his own choosing. Russia had great success against both the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman armies from the very beginning of the war, but they never succeeded against the might of the German Army in the early war. In September 1914, to relieve pressure on France, the Russians were forced to halt a successful offensive against Austria-Hungary in Galicia to attack German-held Silesia.

Gradually a war of attrition set in on the vast Eastern Front, where the Russians were facing the combined forces of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, and they suffered staggering losses. General Denikin, retreating from Galicia wrote, "The German heavy artillery swept away whole lines of trenches, and their defenders with them. We replied, but not quite to the same effect. At the very least we had something with which we could reply, but at the most it had mediocre consequences. Our regiments, although completely exhausted, were beating off one attack after another by bayonet ... Blood flowed unendingly, the ranks became thinner and thinner and thinner. The number of graves multiplied." In the aftermath of the Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive which caused a strategic withdrawal from Poland, Nicholas, against the advice of his inner circle, and having by this point lost the patience to put up with continued failures at the front, assumed the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, and set off for the front at once, leaving his wife, Elisabeth, his cousin Nicholas, and his brother Michael to run the country, leaving instructions on what to do in such a situation. Accompanying Nicholas was his son Alexei, who, like his father, had assumed a military career at a very early age, and was by this point already a Colonel in the army. Initially, Alexei served as a staff officer to his father, but quickly proved to be a skilled tactician, and was given higher commands as the months progressed.

Frontline Commander

Nicholas personally leading a cavalry charge into German artillery positions

Nicholas expressed a desire to once again lead soldiers into combat as he had done in his years in the Balkans, to the overwhelming objections of his advisors and General Staff, but as a pious man, he believed that God would give him protection as He had done during the war against the Turks. Alexei also expressed a desire to join his father at the frontlines, though Nicholas initially refused given he was the only son and heir to the Russian throne, he allowed him to do so upon giving him command of the forces of the Baltics.

Arriving at the frontlines on horseback in late September, Nicholas was quick to adjust to life in the trenches, sleeping in a simple officer's quarters, and living life as a regular soldier, making a deep impression on his subordinates and the soldiers he was daily surrounded by. From his quarters in the front, Nicholas relayed orders to the Headquarters far away near Mogilev via telegraph and telephone, whilst conducting defensive operations in face of the enemy in the middle of constant bombardment.

Combat wounds and the great counteroffensive

Nicholas overseeing winter maneuvering in Poland c. November 1915

The Germans, learning of Nicholas' presence on the battlefield, were determined to capture him alive, with orders not to try to kill, but rather disarm and apprehend. Nicholas was aware of this, but even so continued to command from the frontlines, personally leading several sorties into the enemy positions to try to make a breakthrough, micromanaging individual troop movements even in the heat of battle and belting out orders to nearby officers as he rushed into the enemy trench. In one legendary occurrence, Nicholas came across a battalion of Finnish infantry who were waiting for the order to attack. Grasping the flag of Finland in one hand and a saber in the other, he rushed out of the trench, followed by the Finns, in a successful attack on the enemy positions. Many of his sorties were successful, creating several sailients in the German lines.

The Tsar's luck was not to last, as in November 1915, whilst leading a charge at the head of his soldiers at what was termed the Kowel-Brody line, Nicholas was struck by a stray bullet to the shoulder, and after encouraging his soldiers to charge on, was forced back to a hospital in the rear. This sent shockwaves throughout Russia, many fearing the Tsar was about to die. He was frequently visited by his family, worried that the wound may be fatal. However, the bullet was successfully removed and proper medicine applied, and after making a full recovery within a few weeks, he returned to the frontlines. Nicholas was wounded once again in February 1916 near Kholm, but the wound was less severe than before and Nicholas had returned within a week. The Germans admired Nicholas' tenacity and ferocity in battle, as well as his strategic and tactical brilliance in the face of combat, able to change what seemed like defeat into a complete victory, and though several of his sorties were failed attacks, it was not enough to stem the progress being made in the counterattack.

Poland and elsewhere

Nicholas (center of image) leading a "fox hunt" in Poland

As the weeks passed, the Russian forces made several advances into Poland, retaking most of Poland by summer and by August 1916, were in Warsaw. However, not all was smooth, as in the north, the Russians were being forced back to Riga, threatening an encirclement. Nicholas, trusting in the bright abilities of his son, promoted him to full General and placed him in command of the forces in the north instead of ordering a general retreat, a decision which aroused great doubts from many. Fortunately, Alexei would prove up to the task, successfully stabilizing the front after a shaky start, and after holding until September, counterattacked and forced the Germans to Kovno, retaking the city in mid-November, the Tsesarevich also personally leading his men in charges and sorties into enemy lines being wounded himself several times.

In Austria, the Russians regained their momentum and were able to retake large swaths of Galicia-Lodomeria, and in late 1916, Romania joined the war, determined to gain Transylvania. General Brusilov, placed in total command of the Austrian front by Nicholas, launched a large offensive of his own, spearheading deep into Austria and threatening Budapest within 4 months. The Ottoman front was faring much better as the Russians, with assistance from their Anglo-Arab allies, had made great strides into Anatolia, and though an allied sortie into Gallipoli would prove to be a disaster, the Russians were nearing Ankara by the year's end.

Nicholas emerges from his dugout shortly before leading a charge in January 1917

Stalemate in the west and unrest at home

In the Western Front, the situation had effectively ground to a stalemate, the fields dominated by trenches and barbed wire as well as littered bodies scattered across the fields. Nicholas was kept informed on progress in the West, and was displeased at the lack of progress being made. In Verdun and the Somme, thousands of soldiers were mown down in vain attacks every day, and the casualty figures were continuing to rise in those theaters. Nicholas could only hope that the Western front would hold long enough for him to force a surrender on Germany and her allies, given the progress he had made in the past year. However, his supplies were running low, and whilst the factories were producing as much as possible, they could but barely sustain the entire war effort. And at home, there was infighting among various political factions; Elisabeth was trying her best to keep everything in check, and saw success in matters of public order, but the political infighting proved too great of a task for her or any of her children to fully tackle. Mikhail and Grand Duke Nicholas were constantly bickering about army affairs, and several liberal factions threatened a coup to install a Duma as the head government of Russia. They had already been able to recruit three regiments into their cause, and a fourth was needed in order to stage such a coup, and they were easily able to garner the support of two further regiments by early February 1917. Nicholas was not deaf to these threats, and tried to respond accordingly, to mixed results, preventing any further regiments from defecting and ensuring their support, though not able to prevent the defectors from leaving the republican cause. It was largely contained to St. Petersburg, but there were elements in other large cities such as Moscow as well.

Shootout between pro-coup soldiers and policemen in St. Petersburg during the coup

February coup

On March 8, leading politicians including Georgy Lvov, Alexander Kerensky, Mikhail Rodzianko, and various socialists including Julius Martov, Alexander Shliapnikov, Lev Kamenev, and others, having formed a political coalition and recruited the help of five of the regiments in Saint Petersburg (two-thirds of the total personnel had refused to participate due to their loyalty to the Tsar and were subsequently dismissed), marched to the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg where themselves and a handful of other politicians stood in front of the palace gates and declared before an increasingly large crowd that had gathered due to the commotion that "Tsar Nicholas has abandoned his people as a bloodthirsty warmonger who cares more for violence and bloodshed than his own people", and that "the efforts of the Triumvirate left by Nicholas have been deeply in vain, and that due to these circumstances, we, members of the Dumist factions, as well as members of the armed forces, were compelled to take swift action and hereby declare the Federal Russian Republic in place of the Russian Empire." This was met with a cold reception and the coalition's attempts at swaying the people over to their side largely failed. That same day, the delegates met in the main meeting hall of the palace, where Rodzianko assumed the position of Chairman of the newly-founded State Duma.

Public opinion was negative, and shootouts between the putschists and loyalists were frequented day and night. Tsarina Elisabeth was arrested and confined to Tsarskoe Selo, as well as other members of the Imperial family, sometimes getting little sleep during the night due to shootings outside. Nicholas was infuriated upon hearing the news, and now faced a dilemma, whether to continue the war to its conclusion and risk more bloodshed in Russia, or to make peace to restore order in Russia, but risk the collapse of the Western front after allocations of the Eastern troops to the West. Nicholas could return and continue the war, but doubted the abilities of his generals to see the war to its conclusion, worrying that they could botch the siege of Berlin in one way or another. Alexei also wished to return, having seen much carnage and wanting to get rest from the fighting.

He actively consulted with foreign representatives and stayed informed on the situation in the West. By this point, Russia had retaken all of Poland and captured Danzig, as well as capturing Budapest and even forcing the Ottoman surrender, which was followed by Bulgaria a month afterwards in April. In the west, America had entered the war, and was ferrying troops to France in order to assist their European allies. It was a massive relief for Nicholas, but he needed to hasten victory, otherwise risking a civil war. In St. Petersburg, street fighting had claimed the lives of hundreds of people, and in Moscow signs of hostile activity were beginning to enlarge.

Nicholas continued conducting a brilliant offensive into Brandenburg, but upon reaching the outskirts of Berlin, having recently captured Frankfurt, it had become clear he could not afford to siege the city. The situation had worsened too much, and a siege of a city like Berlin would last too long for comfort, not to mention the increased resistance by the Germans as he neared the capital. He decided it was time for him to return and restore order to the country.

Nicholas returns to St. Petersburg after signing the Peace of Warsaw

A bittersweet peace

On May 7, 1917, delegates from Russia, including Nicholas and Alexei, Germany, and Austria-Hungary met to discuss terms for a truce at Warsaw. These talks lasted for several days, which caused great anxiety to Nicholas, who was hoping for a short truce to quickly deal with the situation in St. Petersburg and return to finishing the war against the Central Powers. On May 15, a deal was reached: both sides would refrain from any combat for 6 months, and although Nicholas attempted to shorten the truce, he found little success.

Nicholas reluctantly signed the truce, the witnesses later describing Nicholas as "relieved, yet very worried". Three days later, Nicholas and Alexei were on board the first train home, determined to end the chaos happening in the capital. The soldiers were relieved that the war was finally over, and that they had defeated the Germans, but were disappointed at the loss of the opportunity to march into Berlin or Vienna. The treaty had saved Germany and Austria, albeit temporarily, the Ottomans still being forced to deal with the British threat, and Bulgaria under increasing pressure from two neighboring countries.

Siege of the Tauride

Nicholas wrote and delivered several instructions to the officers on board the Imperial Train which also carried several battalions of soldiers. They were to prepare for heavy fighting in St. Petersburg, and to march on the Tauride Palace upon arriving in the city with the Tsar and the Tsesarevich at the head. On May 15, the Imperial Train arrived to massive, highly ecstatic crowds waiting to welcome their beloved Tsar home. Nicholas later wrote he "was drenched in tears, though I must admit much of those tears were from my very own." The Tsar's swift arrival, and the ecstasy of the people upon hearing the news, utterly horrified the usurpers, who hastily began to prepare for a defense of the Tauride Palace. After the coup, the fighting on the streets had diminished the pro-coup soldiers by around 150 men; after the Tsar's return, around 1,250 deserted the socialist cause, and rejoined the Imperial ranks, asking forgiveness from the Tsar, who graciously pardoned them. The remaining 600 or so were confined to the Tauride Palace, and on May 17, Nicholas, having the previous day liberated his immediate family in a tearful reunion, arrived with a force of 2,000 soldiers, surrounding the palace, threatening to use his artillery positioned all around to blow it up with all inside. After several failed negotiating attempts over 6 days, the socialists prepared to fight to the end, several politicians arming themselves with weapons left by the deserters: rifles, pistols, and even several shotguns. On May 24, Nicholas gave the order to begin firing on the building, the conspirators having refused any peace talks over the past 7 days.

The Tauride Palace under heavy bombardment

The ensuing artillery bombardment was devastating to the palace, killing dozens within the first hour. After 3 hours of consistent bombardment, soldiers of the Izmaylovsky Regiment prepared to storm the building, and after one last salvo, the signal was given, and the soldiers streamed into the palace in droves. The socialists fought back with ferocity, providing very stiff resistance to the Imperial troops, but were eventually pushed back into the main meeting hall after heavy losses.

By nightfall, over half of the socialist forces, including both soldiers and politicians, were either killed or wounded. Much of the palace had been devastated by artillery, and the conspirators were using whatever they had at their disposal to block any entrances or exitways. Nicholas once again approached with a final invitation to surrender, but was rejected for the final time. After this, Nicholas ordered his soldiers to light the interior of the palace on fire, and allow any who wished to escape do so, but as the fires continued to grow larger and more intense, none were seen trying to escape. save for a handful.

Nicholas later wrote to his cousin, George V: "I had to do it, I couldn't waste any more lives lost in such a vain operation against the socialists. They have sealed their fate with their blood, and I will assure that they will meet the death they seek for. Nobody has tried to escape. Instead, amid the cackling and snapping of the fire, you can faintly hear singing from inside the poor palace! Singing! They sang a tune which is unfamiliar to me, but a deserting soldier later said was named 'L'Internationale', their apparent anthem. The palace is all but ash and rubble now, all inside are dead, save for a very small number, Rodzianko and Lvov being the most prominent survivors it seems; Shliapnikov, Kerensky, Trotsky, Kamenev, all of them were not so lucky. It was a dark day which I will never forget." The soldiers who had joined the conspirators but deserted upon the tsar's return were fully reinstated as a show of mercy.

The Interwar years

Reentry into the Great War

Propaganda poster depicting Russia's advances into Austria in July 1917

In July 1917, Nicholas, having dealt with the chaotic atmosphere in Russia over the past two months, redeclared war on a fragmenting Germany, intent this time to give his soldiers the opportunity to march into Berlin as he had promised. Russian forces swept through the remaining German lands at breakneck speeds, arriving at Berlin within three weeks. The stalemate in the West had barely changed, but with German forces having been redeployed to the west following the Treaty of Warsaw, the Russians quickly encircled Berlin, and with rapidly arriving reinforcements thanks to industrialization carried out in the new occupied territories despite the chaos at home, they successfully defended against multiple breakthrough attempts. After a grueling four months of siege, and with the Western allies finally managing a breakthrough, Germany capitulated on November 11, 1917, Berlin having been ravaged by unceasing bombardment and repeated assaults on the city. Russian troops marched into Berlin a few days later. Austria saw the same result, and capitulated within two months after Vienna was surrounded.

Peace at last

With armistice effective the same day as the capitulation, peace talks began. Russia and Romania had already settled its newly-acquired territory and didn't wish for further territories to be added, thus the primary focus would be on the other Allied powers, particularly in the West. For France, they were returned their lost territories of Alcase-Lorraine, and a joint occupation zone in the Saarland. Italy would never attain its predetermined holdings, only attaining the Tyrol region, the promised lands of Damlatia never being given to the victors. Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedonia formed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later termed Yugoslavia in 1929. The Ottoman Empire was disbanded and later became the state of Turkey, with several states in Arabia being formed. Nicholas criticized the Sykes-Picot Agreement, and would never agree to it despite pressure from some of his ministers; nevertheless the agreement came into effect shortly after the war's end. Germany would be forced to pay huge reparations to the leading Allied powers, the Rhineland was demilitarized, and the armed forces were severely diminished. Austria was divided, and a war broke out between Hungary and Romania over Transylvania not long after.

The terms settled, the delegates, Nicholas and Alexei included, met at Versailles to sign the treaty on 8 July 1918, officially ending the Great War. Nicholas could be seen with an uncertain look, and he had expressed his doubts on the severity of the punishment on Germany, privately asking French general Ferdinand Foch: "How long do you believe this armistice will last?", implying that war was soon to follow. Foch responded, "I presume it will be for just twenty years, then the deluge comes on the world again." With peace finally on the world again, Nicholas returned to lead the nation in its recovery from the war; it had been exhausted and the economy was drained from sustaining the war effort for three years of hard fighting.

Industrialization and the Great Depression

Nicholas continued his progress on industrializing Russia, building several more factories and developing the more rural areas to the east of Russia. Ports were improved and expanded, and the town of Arkhangelsk was established as a port city, connected by rail and more easily accessible. Trade increased with the world, and the Russian economy, having taken a heavy blow due to the war, strengthened and grew once again. Several more factories were built, production of goods increased, and a trade boom was a large benefit to Russia, who profited from the large amounts of sales and exports across the world. The camera had been further developed and new innovations helped provide clearer images and accurate speed, as well as portability. Electricity was expanded to the furthest parts of the empire, powering homes in rural and urban areas, reaching as far as Vladivostok in the Far East, soon leading to towns enlarging into cities and the Russian population rising steadily, as well as a boom in automobile and car sales across the nation, leading to further economic prosperity.

Nicholas recruited several experienced city planners to make changes to Saint Petersburg and Moscow, as well as other major cities, especially in foreign territories like Helsinki, Riga, Kovno, Kiev, and Warsaw. Modernization helped businesses establish, and Nicholas helped work wonders to strengthen the Russian economy, which had by 1927 fully recovered from the effects of the Great War, and was steadily growing stronger. Better and more portable cameras had been made, more mechanical tools were made to speed construction purposes, and cars had been improved and more modernized, with better speed, maneuverability, and safety. Measures were added to help cope with these new developments, and to help better road safety. Murmansk saw expansion as well, and became a hotbed for trade and commerce, with more ports to allow more and bigger ships to trade goods with Russia as well as serving as a major layover port for ships making a long journey.

By 1929, Russia's economy was among the strongest in the world, but it would face its greatest challenge yet: in October 1929 the global stock market crashed, and the economies of many nations were hit hard, suffering greatly and several businesses closing, and currency values plummeting, instituting a period that was later known as the Great Depression. The Russian economy was hit severely, as trade was cancelled with many major economic powers which took a toll on Russia's economy; exports could not be sent out due to the worthlessness of many global economies, but kept strong as the Tsar diverted many of his personal funds into saving the national economy, as the other nobles did the same upon the Tsar's urging. Russia's economy would somewhat recover, but it would recover enough to be able to give loans to other nations to help with their economic difficulties, though there were, of course, limits so as to not cause the Russian economy to collapse. Russia emerged having survived the crash, and having been among the first nations to recover, a victory that would be crucial in its future.

Significant appointments

On 9 December, Nicholas appointed several prominent figures to the posts of Governor-General, appointments which were influenced by the Tsar's progressive attitude towards the ethnic identity of the people. In Finland, Nicholas appointed renowned Finnish native Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, who saw highly distinguished service during the Great War as General of Cavalry, as the nation's Governor-General of Finland, an appointment which further strengthened Nicholas' ties with the Finns. Mannerheim served until his resignation in 1946 due to poor health.

In Ukraine, Pavlo Skoropadskyi, another prominent general of the Great War and ethnic Ukrainian Cossack who descended from a prominent Ukrainian line of military leaders and statesmen, received appointment as his country's first ethnically Ukrainian Governor-General. Alongside this development, Nicholas also merged all the Ukrainian governorates into the Kyiv Governorate, in a unified Ukrainian country to promote its cultural identity as well. Skoropadskyi served in his post until his death in 1960.

In the Vistula Country it was formally restored to its previous status as Congress Poland to enhance its national identity and Józef Piłsudski, a former Polish revolutionary who, after his return from exile in Siberia in 1892, supported Russia alongside many other prominent Poles after Nicholas began his anti-Russification reforms, going on to have a distinguished career in the Great War, was appointed Namiestnik, or Viceroy, while the various governorates in Poland received ethnic Polish governors-general as well. Piłsudski served until his death in 1935.

In Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, the three countries were unified into a single Baltic state, and in an unprecedented event, elections were held in the Baltics to choose the Governor-General. The three candidates were Johan Laidoner of Estonia, Jānis Balodis of Latvia, and Silvestras Žukauskas of Lithuania. Measures were implemented to prevent voter fraud, and in a close election, Žukauskas was elected the new Governor-General, receiving roughly 41% of the vote. The other two candidates were made Deputy Governor-Generals as a result. Žukauskas served until his retirement in 1928, Laidoner until his death in 1957, and Balodis until his death in 1969.

Pavlo Skoropadskyi in 1918, the year he was appointed

C. G. E. Mannerheim in 1918, the year he was appointed

Józef Piłsudski in 1922, appointed 1918

Silvestras Žukauskas in 1927, appointed 1918

Army reform

Following the First World War Nicholas saw great need for immediate army reforms, as well as an improvement to the officer corps. The Russian army's poor performance in the early war was largely attributed to the incompetence of a majority of the General Staff, which was the biggest factor in forcing Nicholas to head to the front in order to salvage the deteriorating situation. Since the end of the war, many officers, including the Governors-general Nicholas had appointed in 1918, presented their respective theories and plans for each type of warfare. However, it was the emerging new generations of officers that showed the most promise.

The Tsar showed to be more inclined with the forward-thinking ideas of these new commanders, sharing their concerns and reviewing doctrine and theory. Officers such as Tukhachesky, the mentor of another officer named Zhukov, were major proponents of the deep battle doctrine, and promoted the use of aircraft in battle. As a result, officers such as Semyon Budyonny who desired to stay with traditional horse cavalry were sidelined in consequence. In the Tsar's words, "People like Budyonny refuse to move forward, they are stuck in the age of Menshikov, Suvorov, Bagration, and Kutuzov. Although they are some of the finest men Russia has produced in its long history, the circumstances surrounding their achievements are impossible to be achieved today."

Nicholas was critical of the concept of "quantity over quality" in terms of tank design. Given the vast plains and also the heavy mountains and forests in Central Europe, the Tsar promoted more mobile light and medium tanks, rather than prioritizing the heavy tanks. Instead, Nicholas preferred to leave the heavy tanks for defense, such as the TS-2 (TseSarevich) class heavy tanks, primarily used for bunker busting and artillery purposes, but other heavy tank variants such as the TN (Tsar Nicholas) class were more maneuverable and flexible, and thus were used in frontline combat more often than not.

Nicholas also prioritized the nation to be better prepared for the next conflict, noting the strain on Russian factories during the Great War. With industrialization on the rise, more and more factories were built in order to maintain the pace with where the rest of the world was going. With a strong Russian economy, Nicholas elected to equally balance production on all army branches, as well as to make minor cuts on the military budget to temporarily focus on domestic development. New drillbooks were drafted in order to better prepare the entirety of the armed forces for war, and several military exercises were held to help in improving preparedness for all branches of the Imperial Russian army.

Nicholas was also critical of parades, writing, "Parades are nothing but unnecessary and very misleading. When you observe military parades, the soldiers are all marching in unison, highly disciplined, having practiced hour after hour for such a spectacle. Once war comes, that's all of the military experience they have. When the actual fighting arrives, the façade of the parades is destroyed, and the army shown to be 'well-disciplined' flees in terror of those who have practiced warfare more than wasting their time marching around in the parade ground." Consequently, there were fewer than 500 military parades across Russia and it was estimated that Nicholas only attended around 62 parades in his entire lifetime, a sixth of that being in his youth.

In pre-war assessments of the Imperial Russian army, analysts evaluated that the entire Russian army could be mobilized within 24-48 hours of a declaration of war, even if war were to come unexpectedly. This was accredited to high discipline, organization, and efficiency of the training programs instituted by the Tsar after the First World War.

Second World War

Failed peace

In 1932, Ernst Thälmann, the Chairman of the Communist Party of Germany, became President of Germany after his appointment by the German Reichstag, Thälmann would consolidate power and rise to become the dominant figure in Germany. In the following years, Thälmann would break several of the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, and expand German territory by annexing Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia. Nicholas severely criticized the actions of Britain and France in their lax approach to the situation which was named "Appeasement", a policy followed by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, and immediately began mobilization after the annexation of Austria in 1938. Germany did the same, gathering its forces in the Western borders in hopes of a successful Schlieffen Plan. Defensive lines were erected along the Russian border, and tensions were high. In the Far East, Japan had also taken a more communist and militaristic approach to their foreign policy, invading Manchuria in 1931 in violation of their previous agreement with Russia in 1904. Russia began to mobilize on its Eastern border as well. In 1937, war finally broke out after the People’s Republic of Japan openly invaded the rest of China as well as the border with Russia. A naval invasion of Sakhalin took place and was able to push the Russian forces towards the 50th Parallel, where the front stabilized. Elsewhere, the front was an effective stalemate as both sides were unable to make advances against each other.

War breaks out

German blitzkrieg in the west, stalemate in the east

In July 1940, Germany declared war on Russia and invaded Poland, part of Russian territory. In response, France and Britain declared war on Germany. Russia, who had been prepared for a situation like this, was able to repel the first few German assaults, but ultimately the German aim was to hold the Russians in the East as they would conquer the West, a repeat of the Schlieffen Plan, albeit this time with different results. German generals were able to exploit a weakness in the French defenses that were the Ardennes, a forest landscape thought impossible to cross. As a result, German tanks penetrated the French lines and within weeks France capitulated, alongside the Low Countries, and now Germany was threatening a naval invasion of Britain.

In the east, Nicholas had taken personal command despite his age. Instead of commanding from a headquarters, Nicholas was closer to the front, using his personal tank, a heavy TN-3 which was specially equipped with small anti-aircraft guns, more advanced radio, and two 850-horsepower engines, as well as mechanics that improved maneuverability, as his mode of transport and for combat purposes. Unlike the previous world war where Nicholas was constantly in the heat of battle, this time he was only limited to around to personally leading forces in 8 engagements in the entire conflict due to his age, though he would prove to be skilled in commanding a tank during these engagements, garnering a total of 37 kills. The Tsar's TN-3 suffered some superficial damage throughout the war, but otherwise was unharmed.

Fighting was largely a stalemate in the Eastern front, but saw tens of thousands of casualties by the year's end. Danzig allowed a swift invasion of East Prussia, but otherwise, there were very few changes in terms of territory. Russian defenses had been supervised by Nicholas himself, and were proving themselves effective against German blitzkrieg tactics, the Russians using their superior manpower to sufficiently man weaker positions. Alexei was away in the Far East, managing the war effort there. The Imperial Navy was successful in preventing any naval invasions and the Imperial Air Force was working wonders to defend against air attacks.

During the interwar period, Nicholas made it a top priority to ensure efficient and effective training in the armed forces, leaving no room for favoritism or corruption, owing to his experiences as a junior officer. Consequently, the Russian army was well-disciplined and proven efficient on the battlefield, and the new generations of officers also proved their worth on the field, with the newer generals showing much more competence and reliability than the ones in the First World War. With the officer corps composed of these more efficient and meritorious officers, Nicholas took less involvement in military affairs, refraining from micromanagement, though he still maintained a presence in military circles.

War against Japan

On 7 July 1937, Japan invaded China through its puppet states in Manchuria, and Lake Khasan saw the first official battle of the Russo-Japanese War. Russian troops under Major-General von Ungern-Sternberg were engaged with forces belonging to Japanese general Michitarō Komatsubara. Although the Russians were outnumbered, Sternberg drove off several Japanese attacks until nightfall, where he withdrew in good order to Vladivostok. Lieutenant-General Grigory Shtern took command over the Far East Military District following this battle.

The same day as the Battle of Lake Khasan, Japanese forces undertook a landing at Sakhalin. Major-General Nikolai Berzarin, who was in charge of Sakhalin, conducted an orderly withdrawal to the 50th Parallel after several days of fighting in the beaches, having suffered major casualties, and electing to take defensive positions at the Parallel. From there, he maintained control of Okha, the northernmost port city, where reinforcements were sent from the mainland to prevent any more Japanese progress. It was an effective stalemate in the 50th Parallel that saw heavy fighting throughout, with little progress being made until the end of the war.

As the Japanese continued to make advances into China, the Russian army was unable to make much progress in the Manchurian front. The stalemate continued for five months, and as Nanjing fell to the Japanese, several reports emerged of atrocities committed by the Japanese in the city. Displeased with the lack of progress being made in the Far East, and horrified at the atrocities committed in Nanking, Nicholas placed General Schtern under command of Tsesarevich Alexei, who travelled to Vladivostok, still in Russian control, to take command of Russian forces in Manchuria.

In 1938, some breakthroughs were achieved, albeit minor, though some ground was taken. Mongolian troops in particular proved themselves in the Mongolian frontier, harassing Japanese convoys and fighting in heated battles with several divisions, preventing some reinforcements from reaching the front. Overall, however, the campaign was a very slow grind in Manchuria that resulted in thousands of casualties on both sides each week. Seeing their inability to make any gains in the east, Japan focused more resources in preparation for offensives into Indochina and the colonial holdings south of Japan.

Naval war

Both Japan and Russia had made several innovations in combined arms warfare with the advent of aircraft. In 1927, Russia developed its first aircraft carrier, whereas the Japanese had done so in 1922. Several redesigns and collaborations with Britain, Japan (briefly), and later America helped shape the aircraft carrier into its form during the Second World War. With aircraft proving itself to fly far distances with less time required, battleships grew more obsolete as development of carriers and aircraft took over the naval spectrum. The current Nicholas-class battleships under construction were refitted as aircraft carriers, whereas the existing battleships were assigned to patrol the North Sea, Atlantic, Sea of Japan, or simply mothballed, some even being scrapped to help with the war effort.

Vladivostok would serve as an extremely vital naval base, and it was subject to several raids by Japanese planes, although sufficient anti-aircraft batteries as well as thorough preparations prevented much destruction. Nicholas was an advocate of combined arms, and saw great opportunity in the use of aircraft carriers, diverting many battleship funds into aircraft carrier development. Aircraft carriers would prove to be largely effective, providing aircraft with a mobile airbase, making strikes on military targets far easier, and having less distance to travel as bombing runs could now last down to a mere 6 hours, though time varied on how far away the carrier was.

During and after the First World War, Nicholas had thoroughly studied the uses of the German U-boat submarines that had sunk many ships during the war, and saw much promise and potential in developing submarines for the Imperial Russian Navy. Alongside theorist Stepan Makarov and others, they developed Russia's first submarine, the Chichagov, in 1925, the submarine being commissioned the following year, seeing service in patrols near Petrograd and even some outings into the North Sea and near Iceland and Greenland, making a visit to Scapa Flow on at least two occasions.

As the submarine fleet grew, it was divided into three categories: tactical, strategic, and theatrical. Tactical submarines performed reconnaissance as well as attacks on merchant shipping, but had a limited range and were mainly used for coastal patrols and strikes on nearby bases in Korea and patrols in the Sea of Japan. Strategic submarines had longer range and were the bulk of the submarine force, raiding in the Sea of Japan and sometimes Japan itself, as well as in the East China Sea and parts of the Philippine Sea. Theatrical submarines had a range that could take them all the way to Australia, and assisted in American island-hopping campaigns in the region.

Submarines played a vital role in sinking valuable targets such as merchant ships, transports, destroyers, and carriers, and several hundreds were produced in Vladivostok alone. Several notable targets were the carrier Zuikaku in 1941, her sister ship Shōkaku in 1942, and the battleship Kirishima that same year. Overall, the submarines saw great success, sinking over 14 million GRT in the war against Japan.

Breakthrough in Europe

Over the course of three years, there was a stalemate in the Eastern Front. Any attempts of Blitzkrieg were hampered by proper preparedness of the Russian forces as well as efficient consolidation and cooperation. Discipline permitted the army to act efficiently to any offensives conducted by the Germans, and there were sufficient reserves to prevent any breakthroughs. The air force was winning the fight in the air, and the navy was grinding down the Kriegsmarine at sea. Germany would hold a dogged resistance, however, and any Russian offensives were likewise countered. But, both sides knew that with Russia having a larger industry, army, economy, and reserves, the Axis would be the first to buckle. Desperation grew in the Axis as the lines began to weaken by mid-1942, and more and more resources were diverted to the East.

In August 1942, the British, emboldened by the weakened state of Germany, attempted a landing in Dieppe. Intended to test the feasibility of a landing as well as to gather intelligence, it proved to be a disaster as aerial and naval support was not enough to allow the ground forces to accomplish their objectives, and after hours of fighting, the 6,050-strong force withdrew from the beach with staggering losses-over half the force had been casualties, with the Royal Air Force losing twice the amount of planes to the Luftwaffe. Nicholas harshly criticized the operation, prompting alienation from some members of the British royal family given the organizer of the raid, Mountbatten, was a member of it, but provided the fact there was much to learn from it, and encouraged those who participated to learn lessons from the failure.

By mid-1943, the situation had further deteriorated for Germany. Not only had they been ground down by constant warfare against a numerically superior foe, they had also been pushed back 60 miles from Warsaw, and had been pushed back from Wroclaw. Breakthroughs were reported in Poznan and Bydgoszcz, forming a sailient around Lodz. In September, Nicholas ordered a full counterattack against the weakened German lines. The resulting counterattack proved to be the straw that broke the camel's back as the German lines collapsed. The Russians moved with intense speed and broke through several weak points in the German lines, encircling several Axis divisions. The sailient at Lodz attempted to withdraw, but were encircled at Czerwiensk. By early 1944, Germany had been completely pushed out of Poland, and were forced beyond the border into their home territory. The same went for the Balkan front as the forces there, comprised mostly of Ukrainians and Belorussians, pushed the Axis to the outskirts of Bucharest.

In November 1943, a conference in Tsaritsyn was held to determine the fate of Europe following the war, and on how the war should be conducted over the coming weeks. On Nicholas' suggestion, the Allies attempted another landing in early February 1944, having learned much from the catastrophe at Dieppe. Two beachheads were established at Calais and Normandy, and with most of the Western garrison diverted to the East, the Allies blitzed through France, with the help of a southern landing, Operation Dragoon. Spain as subject to an invasion from Andorra and newly-liberated France, capitulating in March 1944. The Balkans were pacified within three months, and Germany had been pushed beyond its former borders.

Victory in Europe

By June 1944, the Russians were at the outskirts of Berlin, and the next month saw the American-led Allies reaching the western side of Berlin as well, uniting with the Russian armies to fully encircle the city. Although completely surrounded, the German garrisons resisted fiercely, with the Thälmann Youth and Volkssturm programs recruiting every man, woman, and child to fight in the defense of the capital. Nicholas initially didn't want to bombard the city given the amounts of cultural heritage and significant monuments it held, as well as to avoid the tremendous loss of human life, but was forced to allow such bombardment as the siege dragged on, and the Germans displayed no signs of breaking.

On August 4, it was announced that Ernst Thälmann had committed suicide. Three weeks later, Berlin capitulated as the Allied forces stormed through the devastated city and captured the Reichstag. The Russians were the first to raise their flag above the building, winning the race to capture Berlin. With all of the Axis powers in Europe now capitulated, ending the war in Europe. Across the world, celebrations rang out as the news was announced, and on September 8, 1944 peace was signed, Nicholas officiating the negotiations and the signing ceremony himself, with other fellow Russian officers, officials and Allied delegates present.

Contrary to the general sentiment following the war, Nicholas opted not to celebrate, though he permitted his subordinates and soldiers to do so, not wishing to disturb or mar the joy of a victory. Instead, he spent the aftermath of the war wandering the destroyed streets of Berlin under armed guard, surveying the destruction and sometimes being seen weeping over the destruction of such a culturally iconic city. He was involved in properly burying the bodies of those slain in the fighting, and helping clear debris.

One soldier wrote: "His Majesty was devastated by it all. When we were celebrating, when he showed up, we stopped and saw his face filled with tears. He motioned for us to continue, but we knew how much the destruction broke him. We understood why he didn't want to bombard the city. We knew what would happen if we allowed all hell to break loose. There was much to this city that defined it, yet it was the one of the hearts of a vile ideology that was the cause of this war. We were determined to punish it for all the comrades, the friends, the families we lost, and we have repaid them tenfold."

Victory in Asia

As the war in Europe ground to a standstill alongside the Chinese front, in December 1941, the People’s Republic of Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, a major port under American control, prompting a declaration of war from America against Japan. In February 1941, the Japanese had captured Singapore after a week of fighting, and in that same year, the Philippines had fallen. Attempting an incursion into Australia and New Zealand, as well as offensives into Indochina and India, the Japanese were unsuccessful in these aspects, being driven out of India by British forces. In the Solomon Islands, Allied forces had begun island-hopping campaigns in a campaign to push out the Japanese from the Pacific. Consequently, more resources were diverted from China to resisting American-led advances, to no avail.

At sea, the Russian Navy proved its dominion over Japan, winning a decisive victory at the Battle of the Tsushima Strait in 1942, the combined Russian fleets led by Tsesarevich Alexis himself. With naval and air supremacy established, it had become clear that an Allied victory was inevitable, even more so as the front in Europe deteriorated for the Axis. Forced into the defensive, Japan issued directives to its generals to hold their positions to the last man, with desperation fueling more suicidal attacks to cause as much damage as possible. Kamikaze attacks by suicide pilots were heavily promoted, and dishonor was threatened to any who advocated preserving their life in exchange for the country. Nicholas expressed his shock at the new developments, lamenting the dedication of the Japanese to their nation.

With the Allied chokehold closing around Japan as island after island was captured and the Japanese gradually pushed out of their holdings in India, Burma, and Indochina, as well as a Chinese counteroffensive pushing the Japanese beyond Changsha and recapturing Shanghai at a heavy cost, and the island of Formosa recaptured by the end of 1943, plans were drawn up for a possible invasion of Japan. In May 1943, Russian forces attempted an offensive across the Yellow River, from Vladivostok seeking to capture Port Arthur and encircle Japanese forces still fighting in China. However, Von Ungern-Sternberg's corps was repulsed at Chongjin, and the operation was called off due to possible heavy losses. Blame was shifted to the Tsesarevich, though he denied approving the operation in the first place.

By early 1944, the Japanese had been pushed out of China and beyond the Manchurian frontier, and Von Ungern-Sternberg, seeking to redeem his failure at Chongjin, once again attempted the push to Port Arthur in May of that year. Initially, this plan was looked down on given the failure of the first attempt, but Nicholas recognized Ungern-Sternberg's ability, and approved the plan, recognizing the different circumstances of 1944 compared with 1943. With the Japanese lines more strained and the supply lines near collapse, this time, the offensive was a success. Pushing from Chongjin to Tanchon and Hamhung, Ungern-Sternberg marched across the Korean frontier towards Dandong, a maneuver that cost his men a staggering 45% casualties from attrition or battle. Nevertheless, by July 1944, the Russians had reached Port Arthur, securing the towns they had left behind. The offensive would go on to be dubbed the "March Along the Yalu".

Thanks to Ungern-Sternberg's offensive, the Japanese had been cut off from Manchuria, and Otozo Yamada, commander of the Kwantung Army stationed in Manchuria, was forced to capitulate in the largest surrender of the war, with around 500,000 soldiers encompassing Japanese, Manchurians, and Mengjiang nationalities. By September 1944, the Korean peninsula had been fully conquered, and plans for a combined Japanese invasion were nearing completion by year's end. However, knowing the possible death toll such an operation would reap, and not wishing to lose too many men over a brutal invasion, Nicholas advocated for a different plan involving the use of nuclear weapons that was to hopefully make a large influence on forcing a Japanese surrender without killing too many. Although he regretted the operation, it was recognized that it was a less deadly operation than a possible invasion of Japan would've brought.

American, Russian, and German scientists had worked on devising a nuclear weapon based on technologies that had been developed over the past few decades, and in a joint collaboration, the world saw the first detonation of a nuclear bomb on February 16. 1945. Soon, several more weapons were produced, and planned to be dropped on several important cities in Japan, the first being Hiroshima and Kokura. On May 18, a Russian TB-7 dropped the first bomb on Hiroshima, and eleven days later on May 29, an American B-29 Superfortress dropped the second on Kokura. Both cities were devastated by the bombings, and in total, around 300,000 civilians, soldiers, and other personnel were killed, both in the explosions themselves, and the aftermath.

This, in combination with the defeats in China and the recent loss of Okinawa, finally broke the Japanese spirit. On July 10, 1945, Japan announced that it would be surrendering. On August 5, in a ceremony attended by Nicholas, Alexis, and other high-ranking officials such as General MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz of America, Admiral Fraser of Britain, and Hsu Yung-chang of China, the Japanese delegates led by Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signed the instrument of surrender, formally ending the war in the Pacific, and the Second World War in its entirety. Nicholas would later write as he returned to Petrograd: "There are many celebrations going on, of course I am refraining from participating. I rejoice that the war has concluded, but there is much, so much to be done in rebuilding an otherwise ruined world. I pray that I may do well despite my age, and that I may live to see a better world come out, although I know my years remain few."

Peacetime

United Nations

With the failure of the League of Nations to prevent war, talks emerged of a possible new global organization to replace the League of Nations and to prevent such a war from happening again. After the Japanese surrender, the plans for what would be the United Nations had been finalized. However, with these plans ready to be implemented on the world, there were still two major questions. First, the question of the location of the headquarters, and second, the question of who would be the first Secretary-General. Petrograd, Moscow, Washington, D.C., New York, London, and Paris were considered, but ultimately, the decision came to set the headquarters in Moscow.

On 25 April 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization opened in Moscow, attended by the governments of 50 nations and other non-governmental organizations. On 1 September 1945, with the United Nations Charter ratified and signed by 50 nations, the United Nations officially came into existence with Nicholas himself elected as the first Secretary-General, contrary to his wishes.

Decolonization

From an early age, being well-versed in history and Scripture, Nicholas was opposed to colonialism, seeing its repressions of culture and national identity in favor of the invader's culture as a wrong. Frequently quarreling with his father over such beliefs, his accession as Tsar meant the end of further colonial efforts for Russia, ending the Great Game and allowing a compromise with Japan that avoided war at the turn of the 20th century. Being a man who attained a great standing in global affairs, Nicholas could influence public opinion on certain topics, establishing a bully pulpit that only solidified as Russia grew in power and prestige, even more so following the Second World War when Russia became, alongside the United States, the foremost nation in the United Nations Security Council.

Nicholas was particularly unfavorable to the situation in India, a sentiment which only intensified following the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919. Eventually, in 1947, India was given independence. He was also unfavorable towards seeming British indifference to colonial history, including brutal reprisals of independence movements, and throughout his life demanded apologies from the British government as he had himself done regarding Russian atrocities. He had also vehemently attacked Leopold II's rule in the Congo as more and more evidence came to light of Belgian atrocities in the colony, threatening at one point in a 1904 letter to his mother that "I will go over to Brussels to smack the beard off of that despicable devil, and God willing, I will smack his head off as well."

Decolonization grew in popularity as the Second World War drew to its close, with Japan's former colonial holdings returned to their original owners following their defeat. In 1946, the Philippines was given full independence from America, while India annexed Goa. Portuguese reprisals against independence movements were condemned by Russia during this time and in 1970 a popular revolt removed the authoritarian government in charge, replacing it with a government willing to undergo decolonization. In 1960, following a series of popular revolts, the Congo was freed. In the late 1940s, Russia sent aid to the Indonesians during the Indonesian National Revolt for a few weeks. These were to name but a few, as around 60 colonies were given independence over the course of Nicholas II's reign.

Disputes with Western Europe

Nicholas' outspoken support of decolonization was popular with the subjects of the European powers, but not the powers themselves. In the British House of Commons, there were frequent debates regarding the Tsar's stance, and many criticized his "barging in" on state affairs, though others, most of them sharing the same sentiment, agreed and called for an end to colonization. His supply of Irish rebels with arms and ammunition, including several field guns and even a tank during the Irish War of Independence further jeopardized relations with Britain, though tensions cooled as he offered to mediate the conflict, establishing dominion status for Ireland and rebranding it as the Irish Free State. Russia was the only nation to recognize the Irish Republic.

In France, where the public was polarized following the Dreyfus Affair, the same disputes were apparent, conversations frequently becoming debates when the topic of colonization was brought up, and the recent alliance with Russia would become jeopardized several times, with France even breaking off diplomatic contact on one occasion. In the early 1960s, tensions reemerged with de Gaulle over the issue of Algeria. In 1961, a massacre in Paris against Algerians which was perpetrated by the Parisian Police during an Algerian protest, as well as the Charonne subway massacre the following year by the same perpetrators prompted Nicholas to issue threats of intervention in the Algerian conflict if peace wasn't restored immediately. A month after the Charonne massacre, on 19 March 1962, peace was restored with fullAlgerian independence.

Tensions with the Netherlands had emerged during the Indonesian National Revolution when reports emerged of Russian supply to the Indonesian rebels early in the conflict. This was especially disputed as the Dutch had denounced Indonesia as a creation of Japanese fascism. However, support was revoked as news of atrocities committed, most prominently the Bersiap. Nicholas would later apologize, stating that "If I had known I would support mass murderers, I wouldn't have sent those arms." Tensions cooled after support was withdrawn, though Russia would assume a neutral position for the remainder of the war. The supply of Russian weapons to the Indonesians would prove to be a point of controversy in the Tsar's reign.

Apartheid

One of the foremost issues of decolonialization would be centered on South Africa. Being jointly governed by Britain and the Netherlands, in 1948, the National Party was elected, and instituted a policy named "apartheid". A segregationist policy, it gave whites full prominence and rights, while blacks and other non-white peoples were restricted in their freedoms. Unsurprisingly, Nicholas didn't hesitate to launch a string of condemnations, and began disinvestment for South Africa in 1956 by implementing the first sanctions and a national embargo, calling on other nations to do the same. America, on the other hand, was mixed in its opinion due to the racial issues plaguing the land, though by the 1970s it had joined the disinvestment as civil rights had been instituted.

Britain, however, refused to take up the sanctions on economic grounds as well as maintaining a view that such a move would be unconstitutional. This did not bide well with Nicholas, who threatened to force an international embargo on South Africa, with a full blockade to be implemented should apartheid continue. Britain remained indifferent, but as South Africa gained independence in the form of a republic in 1961, there were talks of a potential change in course, that the National Party could be ousted in favor of a less segregationist government. But, with the vote restricted to whites, the National Party won the 1961 general elections, with Hendrik Verwoerd becoming Prime Minister. During his tenure, he intensified apartheid, instituting a system of institutionalized racial segregation and white supremacy. He would go on to be dubbed the "Architect of Apartheid".

In response, Nicholas, at the end of his rope with the situation, forced a vote in the United Nations General Assembly to first fully condemn apartheid, then forced another to institute a global embargo of South Africa. Despite the objections of Britain and the Netherlands, the vote passed on 27 May 1963. The resulting blockade restricted access to South Africa, tourism thinned, and the economy was under threat of collapse by the year's end. The South African government objected to the blockade, but Nicholas conditioned that they remove apartheid completely in order for the blockade to lift. Blockade runners attempted to bring supplies, but nearly all were captured. Any supplies allowed into the country were directed by UN peacekeepers to blacks and other minority communities, rather than whites.

On 15 August 1964, Verwoerd would be gunned down by ARM (African Resistance Movement) members outside the Parliament building in Cape Town. At first it would seem apartheid would intensify as retribution for the killing, but under threat of a possible coup and even worse sanctions, in the 1966 general election, the National Party agreed not to run. Blacks were returned enfranchisement, and as a result the African National Congress Party won a landslide victory. Apartheid was removed as a system, and equal rights returned, though opposition from hardliner white minority leaders led to the Volkstaadt movement and the formation of the more controversial AWB (Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging) party. Nevertheless, with apartheid abolished, the blockade and sanctions were lifted, and embargoes removed. Oliver Tambo became President of South Africa in 1967.

While Nicholas would be praised by many for his vehement opposition to apartheid, his institution of a blockade that decreased living standards and caused the deaths of several thousands in South Africa remains a point of contention to this day, with protests agains the blockade taking place in several countries in response. It also highlighted Russian influences and the ability to force through resolutions despite opposition by other nations possessing great power. It is estimated the blockade of South Africa, lasting around four years, resulted in around 75,000-77,000 deaths due to starvation or interracial violence. Nicholas' great-grandson, Alexis III, delivered an apology on behalf of Nicholas and the Russian government regarding the handling of the South Africa situation, expressing regret over the deaths that happened during the blockade.

Russian Independence referendums

Early in his reign, Nicholas wanted to maintain autocracy as an absolute monarch, but as time wore on the prospect of decentralization grew larger and larger. While his reign seemed to be universally acclaimed, there were many who wished for a more liberal monarchy, especially to grant the ethnic minorities more representation and individual liberties. Steps had been taken with the appointment of ethnic governors-general for several foreign nations under Russian rule, and the increase of representation of minorities, being allowed to take up government offices and be conscripted into the ranks of the Russian military with equal treatment. However, nearing the end of his reign, Nicholas sought to finalize decentralization, having learned lessons of decolonization worldwide.

On 18 May 1960, the Tsar's 100th birthday, he announced that following talks with several representatives of the nations of Poland, Finland, the Baltics, and Ukraine, independence referendums would be scheduled to begin within 10 years. In the meantime, in preparation for the event where these states would vote for independence, Nicholas worked with several representatives and ministers to draft constitutions and other necessary documents for the nations in question. Across the world, the announcement was well-received, especially in America and Britain, but several exiled Russian nationalists condemned it, regarding it as an apparent show of weakness.

The first independence referendum took place in Poland on 7-15 August 1966, where a majority (56% yes, 31% no, 13% unsure) voted for independence. A second referendum took place regarding the status of the Russian monarchy, where a greater majority (71% yes, 14% no, 15% unsure) voted to maintain the monarchy. On 1 January 1967, in a ceremony attended by Nicholas, Alexis, new Polish president Edward Ochab, new Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz, and other figures, the Polish flag was raised by the aforementioned on the newly-erected Liberty Flagpole, symbolizing Polish independence. Celebrations lasted for over a month, marked by street parties, music festivals, and other festivities, including a special recital by Alexis which was entirely comprised of Chopin.

Poland's referendum was succeeded by Ukraine, whose referendum took place shortly thereafter on 12-20 November 1966, which saw the majority voting for independence (58% yes, 22% no, 20% unsure). The monarchy vote's outcome was similar to the Finnish referendum, albeit with less "no's" (74% yes, 10% no, 16% unsure). Nicholas and Alexis attended the independence ceremonies on 9 March 1967 alongside Mykola Livytskyi, newly-elected president, and Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, the new Prime Minister. A week of Ukrainian culture was celebrated at the Kyiv Opera House, featuring music such as folk songs and dances, compositions by Vakhniyanin, Lysenko, Matiyuk, Lyudkevych, Sichynsky, and others.

Ukraine's independence referendum was followed by the Finns on 25 April-1 May 1967. The results were very close: the majority was less than half of the total vote (41% yes, 36% no, 23% unsure). The vote regarding the monarchy was much more decisive: an 87% majority voted to maintain. The independence ceremonies on 21 February 1968, the 160th anniversary of the start of the Finnish War that led to the creation of the Grand Duchy of Finland, were also attended by Nicholas and Alexis, and new president Urho Kekkonen. At the Alexander Theatre, Nicholas conducted an all-Finnish program consisting of composers such as Sibelius and Kajanus, which was to be one of his final concerts held outside of Russia.

The Baltics were the last of the aforementioned countries to hold a referendum, which was held a year after the Finns on 18-26 May 1968. The reason for this delay being that there had been a previous referendum held around the same time as the Finnish referendum regarding the status of the unity of the country. The vote was held over whether Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania should each become individually independent, or whether to maintain the status quo of a single, unified Baltic nation. The vote was in favor of unity, 56% voting in favor, 39% opposed, and the remainder uncertain. The vote regarding independence narrowly resulted in a "yes" majority - 49% in favor, 46% opposed, the remainder uncertain. The monarchy vote, as expected, was largely in favor at 76%. Independence ceremonies were originally due to take place on 9 November, but due to the death of Nicholas four months before it was decided instead to hold the ceremonies as part of the coronation festivities for Alexis II.

Death

Declining health

Nicholas' health had been robust for most of his life, but after celebrating his 105th birthday, he began to experience unusual weariness and imbalance on his feet. He felt unusually cold at times, and needed to be covered in thick blankets. After his 107th birthday, Nicholas began to experience several headaches and joint pains, and on one occasion nearly collapsed from a severe headache. It was later found to be an aneurysm, and although the operation to remove it was successful, it was followed by a stroke shortly after celebrating Finland's independence that left Nicholas paralyzed and forced to use at first a walker, then a wheelchair. He made fewer and fewer public appearances, conducting much less as time went on, until he was restricted to short outings and brisk walks near the lodge.

This rapid decline in health attracted great amounts concern throughout the world, and many left letters of support at the Alexander Palace and the small lodge where Nicholas was residing. On 29 June, Nicholas conducted his final performance at the Mariinsky Theatre of his own Symphonies No. 2 & 3, as well as Mussorgsky's Prelude to Khovanschina, having to be wheeled onto the stage by an assistant, remaining seated for the entire performance, sitting on a podium for the first and only time in his life. The concert was filmed, and is one of the last images of Nicholas alive. Concertgoers described him as "barely alive; and, with all due respect, an effective cadaver."

Final acts

Seeing his health was deteriorating, Nicholas dictated his final wishes, which included donating a large portion of his personal belongings to the Russian Orthodox Church and several charities, including the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent founded by his wife Empress Elizabeth. The rest would be distributed equally between his immediate family. His final decree on 15 July 1968 declared that all of his titles, awards, and honors would be revoked upon his death, wishing to be buried a simple, ordinary man without any pomp or ceremony at the small lodge he and his family resided in. He donated his private instruments to the Imperial Russian Philharmonic, which he had helped establish as the dominant orchestra in the country.

The decree caused considerable controversy throughout Russia, considering the magnitude of Nicholas' impact on the nation that he should warrant such a simple burial rather than the customary state funeral typically held for the Tsar. There was debate over where to maintain tradition or respect the Tsar's wishes, as many argued that he was worthy of "the highest honors the nation could ever hope to bestow." However, it was decided that the wishes of the Tsar were to be respected, and instead the funeral would be conducted without any intervention by the state. Subsequent plans for the funeral were led by the Russian Orthodox Church and other non-state organizations.

Passing

Nicholas was found dead at the lodge on the morning of July 17, 1968. He had gone to sleep the previous night complaining about drowsiness and exhaustion following his nightly devotions. The exact time of his passing remained unknown, but the date was confirmed as Nicholas often went to sleep listening to music, and would have an assistant play the next piece by either nodding his head or making a sound, until he fell asleep. The assistant couldn't confirm the exact time, but he estimated that it was shortly after midnight, as the piece that had been playing at the time, the 2nd movement of Chopin's Piano Concerto 1, drew to a close and no reply was received from the Tsar. The next morning, the family was informed, and summons were made to all Romanovs around the world to return to St. Petersburg immediately.

Per the decree of 15 July, Nicholas' titles, awards, and honors were revoked, denying him the right to a state funeral. However, a combination of a compromise and the popular support of the people for a state funeral ensured that it would take place. Nicholas' body, encased in a coffin lined with lead, and the top covered with glass, lay in state at the lodge. Hundreds of thousands walked past the Emperor's private room to catch a final glimpse of the Emperor. Measures were taken to prevent any overcrowding or chances of stampede, though cases of fainting were still reported. Initially, the lying-in-state was intended to last only two weeks, but seeing the vast amounts of people who had come to pay their final respects, it was extended to a month. In total, over one million passed through the small lodge to view the Tsar one final time.

Across the world, the news was met with a massive outpouring of grief, and in Russia, the new Tsar, Alexis II, declared a month of national mourning in honor of the late Tsar. Millions of letters of solidarity and grief were sent to the Alexander Palace, and minutes of silence were held internationally. In the newly-independent countries, demonstrations and vigils took place to commemorate the Tsar, and in the Mariinsky Theatre, the Imperial Russian Philharmonic played a cycle of all five of the Tsar's symphonies without a conductor, the podium holding the Tsar's personal violin instead. Thousands of cases of mental breakdowns were reported in the weeks following, and as one pedestrian wrote: "There was scarcely a place you could go where it wasn't crowded by thousands of weeping Russians."

Funeral and burial

Nicholas' funeral took place on 24 August 1968, in St. Petersburg. With no intervention from the state due to the aforementioned decree, it was officiated by the Russian Orthodox Church instead. Although it was not a state funeral, heads of state and dignitaries from many countries attended. The funeral began with the Tsar's casket being carried from the lodge in a procession to St. Isaac's Cathedral where the funeral ceremony was to take place. Nicholas' grandchildren and great-grandchildren served as the fourteen pallbearers. Off-duty servicemen and policemen served as human barriers to hold back the vast crowds, many of whom tossed flowers or miniature Russian and other national flags at the coffin.

A liturgy was said in the cathedral by Patriarch Alexey of Moscow, joined by other patriarchs such as Athenagoras of Constantinople, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, Ignatius Yacoub III of Antioch, and Abuna Basilios of Ethiopia, as hundreds of thousands congregated around the cathedral, with outdoor speakers hooked up to the inside of the cathedral. At the liturgy's conclusion, the body was taken to the lodge's designated cemetery where, after holy water was sprinkled on the coffin, it was lowered and close family members, associates, dignitaries, and the rest of the mourners took turns pouring handfuls of dirt into the grave. So great was the amount of mourners that the grave was filled very quickly. Those who came afterwards simply left icons, flowers, personal letters, and other gifts on the grave.

Once the burial ceremony had ended, a large gravestone was placed over the grave with the inscription, "Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov, Humble and Steadfast Servant of Russia and its People, 1860-1968." In subsequent years, Nicholas was joined by Empress Elisabeth, Tsar Alexis II and his wife Tsarina Maria, Grand Duchess Olga, Tatiana, Queen consort of Yugoslavia, and Anastasia, Queen consort of Bulgaria. Currently there are plans to exhume and transport the body of Maria, Queen Consort of Greece, though some have protested this move, seeing Maria as an icon of Greece. On 17 July 2018, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Tsar's death, a life-size statue of the Tsar in civilian clothing on a pedestal that had been erected on top of the gravestone was unveiled by Tsar Alexis III.

Canonization

Saint Nicholas II of Russia
Tsar-Saint, Righteous, Pious, Liberator, Emperor of All Russia, Theologian
Born	18 May [O.S. 6 May] 1860 Alexander Palace, St. Petersburg, Russian Empire
Residence	St. Petersburg
Died	17 July [O.S. 4 July] 1968 Imperial Lodge, near St. Petersburg, Russian Empire
Honored in	Eastern Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Churches Eastern Catholic Churches
Canonized	15 August 2000
Major shrine	Imperial Lodge of Tsar-Saint Nicholas II, near St. Petersburg, Russian Empire
Feast	17 July [O.S. 4 July]
Attributes	Cross, Imperial Crown, holding a church, wearing military uniform, holding a saber, riding a horse, holding books with pen, violin, baton, depicted as breaking chains, folded hands, surrounded by nature
Patronage	Humility, charitability, justice, piety; invoked as part of liturgy for a Tsar's accession; all Russia

Immediately upon his death, Nicholas was declared a saint in popular veneration by the people, and during the funeral procession from the lodge to the cathedral, many of the more religious mourners began to shout "Sainthood! Sainthood!", a chant which was soon carried throughout the crowds. The Russian Orthodox Church subsequently announced that canonization proceedings were to "begin in all due haste." On 15 August 2000, following the approval of the Moscow Synod, Nicholas, alongside Elisabeth, was officially jointly canonized as saints of the Russian Orthodox Church, being declared "Righteous," with Elisabeth being also declared a "Fool for Christ" owing to her decision to forsake her worldly possessions and join a convent to live the rest of her days in religious life. The ceremony celebrating the canonization was attended by over three million people. In subsequent years, other patriarchates have also canonized Nicholas, including those in the Oriental Orthodox Church, amidst controversy, except for the Assyrian Church of the East, where Nicholas' anti-Nestorian rhetoric continues to be a point of debate.