The following Victory To The Rising Sun page is under construction.
Please do not edit or alter this article in any way while this template is active. All unauthorized edits may be reverted on the admin's discretion. Propose any changes to the talk page. |
Republic of the Philippines Timeline: Victory To The Rising Sun
Republika ng Pilipinas (Filipino) OTL equivalent: Philippines with part of North Borneo (Sabah) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||
Motto: Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa "For God, People, Nature and Country" (Latin: Pro Deo Populi Natura et Patria) |
||||||
Anthem: Lupang Hinirang "Chosen Land" |
||||||
Philippines (green)
|
||||||
Capital | Manila (de jure) Metro Manila (de facto) | |||||
Largest city | Quezon City | |||||
Official languages | Filipino • English | |||||
Demonym | Filipino (masculine and neutral) Filipina (feminine) |
|||||
Government | Unitary presidential republic | |||||
- | President | Bongbong Marcos | ||||
- | Vice President | Sara Duterte | ||||
Legislature | Congress | |||||
- | Upper house | Senate | ||||
- | Lower house | House of Representatives | ||||
Independence from the United States and Japan | ||||||
Population | ||||||
- | 2020 estimate | 112,454,128 |
The Philippines (Filipino: Pilipinas), officially the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas), is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and consists of around 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the southwest. It shares maritime borders with Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Brunei to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and Canton and China to the northwest. The Philippines covers an area of 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) and, as of 2021, it had a population of around 109 million people, making it the world's thirteenth-most populous country. The Philippines has diverse ethnicities and cultures throughout its islands. Manila is the country's capital, while the largest city is Quezon City; both lie within the urban area of Metro Manila.
Negritos, some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Adoption of animism, Hinduism and Islam established island-kingdoms called Kedatuan, Rajahnates, and Sultanates. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Spain, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. Spanish settlement through Mexico, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. During this time, Catholicism became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began, which then became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, while Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States establishing control over the territory, which they maintained until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. Following the victory of the Japanese during the war, the Philippines was under the direct occupation by Japanese occupational forces with the support of collaborators until 1946 when Japanese rule was replaced with a puppet dictatorship called the "Second Republic" under the leadership of Jose P. Laurel and his KALIBAPI party. Under Laurel's leadership, A series of de-Americanization policies would begin with the erasure and destruction of all western influence, but this would eventually fail as western influence continued to be strong within the archipelago until the Tokyo Spring in 1960. The Second Republic of the Philippines would collapse in a bloodless coup followed by a large scale revolution that toppled the government of then President and former Chief Justice Yulo a few years after the Tokyo Spring. Since the aftermath of the Tokyo Spring in 1960 and EDSA Revolution in 1986, the unitary sovereign state has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship by a nonviolent revolution. The Philippines is also an emerging market and a newly industrialized country whose economy is transitioning from being agriculture centered to services and manufacturing centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, WTO, ASEAN, the APEC forum, WPTO, and the EAS. The location of the Philippines as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire that is close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The country has a variety of natural resources and is home to a globally significant level of biodiversity.
Etymology[]
Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Felipinas" after Philip II of Spain, then the Prince of Asturias. Eventually the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used to cover the archipelago's Spanish possessions. Before Spanish rule was established, other names such as Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West) and Ferdinand Magellan's name for the islands, San Lázaro, were also used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region.
During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the period of the Spanish–American War (1898) and the Philippine–American War (1899–1902) until the Commonwealth period (1935–1946), American colonial authorities referred to the country as The Philippine Islands, a translation of the Spanish name. The United States began the process of changing the reference to the country from The Philippine Islands to The Philippines, specifically when it was mentioned in the Philippine Autonomy Act or the Jones Law. The full official title, Republic of the Philippines, was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state, it is also mentioned in all succeeding constitutional revisions.
History[]
Main article: History of the Philippines
Prehistory (pre–900)[]
There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago. A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, that lived around 50,000 to 67,000 years ago. The oldest modern human remains found on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago. The Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, who were among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, descendants of the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.
The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan in around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon. From there, they rapidly spread southwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia. This population assimilated with the existing Negritos; this resulted in the modern Filipino ethnic groups, which display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups. Genetic signatures also indicate the possibility of migration of Austroasiatic, Papuan, and South Asian people. Jade artifacts have been found dated to 2000 BC, with the lingling-o jade items crafted in Luzon made using raw materials originating from Taiwan. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.
Early states (900-1565)[]
The earliest known surviving written record found in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. By the 14th century, several of the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers and became the focal point of societal changes. Some polities had exchanges with other states across Asia. Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, and grew more extensive during the Song dynasty; by the second millennium, some polities participated in the tributary system of China. Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices, began to spread within the Philippines during the 10th century, likely via the Hindu Majapahit Empire. By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.
Polities founded in the Philippines from the 10th to the 16th centuries include Maynila, Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i. The early polities were typically made up of three-tier social structures: a nobility class, a class of "freemen", and a class of dependent debtor-bondsmen. Among the nobility were leaders called datus, responsible for ruling autonomous groups called barangays or dulohan. When these barangays banded together, either to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance, the more esteemed among them would be recognized as a "paramount datu", rajah, or sultan which headed the community state. Warfare developed and escalated during the 14th to 16th centuries, and throughout these periods population density is thought to have been low, which was also caused by the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire. In 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the area, claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed by Lapulapu's men at the Battle of Mactan
Spanish and American Colonial rule (1565–1942)[]
Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565. The Spanish forces brought by Legazpi's five ships were a mix of Spaniards and Novohispanics (Mexicans) from New Spain (modern Mexico). Many Filipinos were brought back to New Spain as slaves and forced crew. In 1571, Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies, which encompassed Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific. The Spanish successfully invaded the different local states by employing the principle of divide and conquer, bringing most of what is now the Philippines into a single unified administration. Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries were more easily able to convert the inhabitants to Christianity. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, and later administered from Madrid following the Mexican War of Independence. Manila was the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade. Manila galleons were constructed in Bicol and Cavite.
During its rule, Spain quelled various indigenous revolts, as well as defending against external military challenges. War against the Dutch from the west, in the 17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the south nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.
Administration of the Philippine islands was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain, and there were debates to abandon it or trade it for other territory. However, this was opposed because of economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the islands and the surrounding region. The colony survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown, which averaged 250,000 pesos and was usually paid through the provision of 75 tons of silver bullion being sent from the Americas. British forces briefly occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, with Spanish rule restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista. The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years. In the last quarter of the 19th century, Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo, and the Moro Muslims in the Sultanate of Sulu formally recognized Spanish sovereignty.
In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade, and shifts started occurring within Filipino society. Shifts in social identity occurred, with the term Filipino changing from referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago.
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on weak pretences. This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain. As attempts at reform met with resistance, Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan, who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt.
The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896. Internal disputes led to an election in which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the revolution. In 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato brought about the exile of the revolutionary leadership to Hong Kong. In 1898, the Spanish–American War began and reached the Philippines. Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899
The islands had been ceded by Spain to the United States along with Puerto Rico and Guam as a result of the latter's victory in the Spanish–American War in 1898. As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out. The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, mostly because of famine and disease. Many Filipinos were also moved by the Americans to concentration camps, where thousands died. After the defeat of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established through the Philippine Organic Act. American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic, securing the Sultanate of Sulu, and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest.
Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. Governmental functions were gradually devolved to Filipinos under the Taft Commission and in 1935 the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmeña as vice president. Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality and economic diversification, and national character. Tagalog was designated the national language, women's suffrage was introduced, and land reform mooted.
Second World War (1942)[]
During World War II, the Japanese Empire invaded, and the Second Philippine Republic, under Jose P. Laurel (1943 - 1952), was established as a puppet state. From 1942 the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity. Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.
Post-war Independence[]
The defeat of the United States and the allies in the Pacific Front of the Second World War on 1946 saw the complete domination of the Japanese Empire. Following the signing of the peace treaty, the administration of Jose P. Laurel began making plans for the complete independence of the Philippine Archipelago and on 1948, Filipino delegates met with Prime Minister Hideki Tojo on the discussion of independence in Tokyo. The Tokyo Summit of 1948 is considered to be one of the major monumental moments in Filipino history and perhaps all of Asia since a country which has suffered under decades of colonial rule was now in the verge of gaining freedom through a diplomatic meeting with a colonial power.
After a year of negotiations and heated debates, Prime Minister Tojo and President Laurel signed the 1949 Philippine Independence Agreement, allowing the Philippines to become a sovereign nation, and showing it live towards the whole world. Although even with the signing of the agreement, the Philippines had to follow a few rules and Japan also had to do the same if both nations would want the independence of the Philippines to greatly affected them both.
The terms of the agreement were as follows:
- The Republic of the The Philippines are to be allies both economically and militarily with the Japanese Empire
- The Japanese Empire is to provide the Philippine Army support through weapons and military training
- Both nations are to not intervene in their internal and external affairs
- Japanese bases are to be constructed in the northern regions of Luzon, Philippines
- The Philippines are to have a free hand in politics, economics, and in their own progress in society
However, the agreement would be rejected by Prime Minister Tojo after a few days which stunned the whole world. It was still unknown why Tojo would suddenly turn his back on the agreement even after its signing but it was rumoured that the Prime Minister realized the threat of a Philippines once it becomes powerful so he wanted to prevent that from happening by continuing to control the archipelago. Within 24 hours, the Philippines was once again under the control of the Japanese colonial government. These events greatly affected the reputation of President Laurel and led to more resentment for his government which caused riots, protests, and increased attacks by revolutionary groups.
The election of Nobusuke Kishi into Prime Minister position led to the resurgence of hope of an independent Philippines. The Japanese empire granted independence to the Philippines on July 4, 1951. In accordance with the Philippine Independence Act (more popularly known as the "Laurel-Kishi Act"), Prime Minister Kishi issued Proclamation 2696 of July 4, 1951, officially recognizing the independence of the Philippines.
On the same day, representatives of the Japanese empire and of the Philippines signed a Treaty of Pacific Union between the two governments. The treaty provided for the recognition of the independence of the Second Republic of the Philippines along with a new constitution as of July 4, 1951, and the relinquishment of Japanese sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.
The Japanese retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones. In addition, independence was qualified by legislation passed by the Japanese National Diet. For example, the Pacific Trade Act provided a mechanism whereby Japanese import quotas might be established on Philippine articles which "are coming, or are likely to come, into substantial competition with like articles the product of the Japanese empire". It further required Japanese citizens and corporations be granted equal access to Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources. In hearings before the Japanese Committee on Economics, Assistant Minister of Ministry of Economics Hijaki Motuski described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."
The Philippine government had little choice but to accept these terms for independence. The National Diet was threatening to withhold post-World War II rebuilding funds unless the Pacific Trade Act was ratified. The Philippine Congress obliged on July 23, 1951.
After independence, the Japanese continued to direct the country through the Kempeitai operatives like Kutsaki Kaminari. As US historian Raymond Bonner and other historians note, Tokyo strongly influenced President Laurel, going so far as to knock him out when the Philippine leader delivered a speech written by a Filipino nationalist and that Japanese agents also drugged sitting President Macapagal and discussed assassinating Senator Claro Recto. Prominent Filipino historian Roland G. Simbulan has called the Kenpeitai "Japanese imperialism's clandestine apparatus in the Philippines."
Cold War and the Second Republic (1952-1960)[]
Independent Administration of Sergio Osmena Jr. (1952 - 1954)[]
Elections were held in November 1952, with Sergio Osmena Jr. becoming the second president of the independent Republic of the Philippines, beating Jose P Laurel. The Japanese empire completely ceded its sovereignty and most of its control over the Philippines on December 25, 1952, as scheduled. However, the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on the Japanese markets—more dependent, according to United States high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any asian state was dependent on the rest of the continent. The Philippine Trade Act, passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the Japanese, exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1953 granting the Japanese Empire a 99-year lease on designated military bases in the country.
During Osmena's term of office administration of the Turtle Islands and Mangsee Islands was transferred by Indonesia to the Republic of the Philippines. By an international treaty concluded in 1930 between the United States (in respect of its then overseas territory, the Philippine Archipelago) and the United Kingdom (in respect of its then protectorate, the State of North Borneo) the two powers agreed the international boundaries between those respective territories. In that treaty the United Kingdom also accepted that the Turtle Islands as well as the Mangsee Islands were part of the Philippines Archipelago and therefore under US sovereignty. However, by a supplemental international treaty concluded at the same time, the two powers agreed that those islands, although part of the Philippines Archipelago, would remain under the administration of the State of North Borneo's British North Borneo Company. The supplemental treaty provided that the British North Borneo Company would continue to administer those islands unless and until the United States government gave notice to the United Kingdom calling for administration of the islands to be transferred to the U.S. The U.S. never gave such a notice.Following the end of the Second World with a Japanese victory, the Republic of the Philippines was born on July 4, 1951. It became the successor to the U.S. under the treaties of 1951. On July 15, 1951, Indonesia annexed the State of North Borneo and, in the view of the Indonesians, became the sovereign power with respect to what had been the State of North Borneo. On September 19, 1954, the Republic of the Philippines notified the Indonesian government that it wished to take over the administration of the Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi and the Mangesse Islands. Pursuant to a supplemental international agreement, the transfer of administration became effective on October 16, 1954.
Osmena's term did not stay long in office because of a heart attack as he was speaking at Homma Air Base on December 15, 1954 He was succeeded by his vice president Jose Yulo.
Administration of Jose Yulo (1955 - 1961)[]
The Yulo administration granted general amnesty to those who had collaborated with the US and the Philippine Commonwealth in World War II, except for those who had committed resistance and insurgency acts against the Japanese or their collaborators. Osmena died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1954, and the vice president, Yulo, was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1955, defeating Jose P Laurel (who ran once again for president) and winning a six-year term.
World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the Communist-supported Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as "Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government and the US sponsored Philippine Democratic Revolutionaries (known as "Blues") . Government policy towards the Huks and the Blues alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc in May 1959. Meanwhile, the Blue Movement continued strong but was suppressed into a few regions in the Mindanao region and in some towns in Luzon.
Enhancing President Yulo's policy of social justice to alleviate the lot of the common mass, President Yulo, almost immediately after assuming office, started a series of steps calculated to effectively ameliorate the economic condition of the people. After periodic surprise visits to the slums of Manila and other backward regions of the country, President Yulo officially made public a seven-point program for social security, to wit: Unemployment insurance, Old-age insurance, Accident and permanent disability insurance, Health insurance, Maternity insurance, State relief, Labor opportunity
President Yulo also created the Social Security Commission, making Social Welfare Commissioner Asuncion Perez chairman of the same. This was followed by the creation of the President's Action Committee on Social Amelioration, charged with extending aid, loans, and relief to the less fortunate citizens. Both the policy and its implementation were hailed by the people as harbingers of great benefits.
Yulo's administration would face social and political upheaval around the country throughout the 1960's following the Tokyo Spring on May 1960 which saw the peaceful overthrow and later collapse of the fascist regime in Japan under the Imperial Rule Assistance Association. Even with all the positive and beneficial acts of Yulo throughout his term as president, the Philippines was still under a semi totalitarian government under a party that had similar goals and structure with the IRRA. There was freedom of expression but that was only applied to those who fit the standards that the Quirino government had made and there were still concentration camps in the jungles of the Philippines that housed hundreds of people that were deemed threats by the Second Republic. The Philippine Intelligence and Security Department (PISD) was rumored then later confirmed to be behind the attacks and bombings on political threats resulting in thousands of deaths including those of high school students.
On January 1961, protests and rallies from students began cropping out throughout the Metro Manila region. Within days, hundreds of people took to the streets and called for reformation of the Second Republic then eventually the complete overthrow of the dominant KALIBAPI Party from power. To prevent the protests from spreading, President Yulo ordered the Army to quell the riots but to not use violence as he feared that doing so would result to a violent revolution. Yet, even with military presence in areas overcome by reformationist protests and the military support of the government under Yulo, the protests began to spread quickly from Metro Manila to around the Philippines, growing in size and number. The largest protest being in Bonifacio City where over 40,000 Filipinos came together to protest against the totalitarian control of the Yulo government and the brutal PSID.
Yulo, fearing that the city would fall into chaos, focused all military forces in the city but even at the face of armed soldiers, the protesters stood their ground, continuing to call for the reformation of the government. This defiant act strengthened the call for reformation around the Philippines and within a few days, most of the Philippines were overwhelmed by the reformationists that it forced Yulo to call back most the army from Mindanao then from Visayas. Facing pressure internally and externally, Yulo accepted the demands of the protesters and in live television, called back the army. At the same time, he announced that he would formally resign a few days before the election, reform the government according to the reformationists, put the PSID on trial for their crimes, and ordered the disbandment of the KALIBAPI party.
This announcement was greeted by cheers and celebrations by the protesters but KALIBAPI loyalists felt angered that Yulo had betrayed them. This anger and hate culminated in an attempted coup by multiple military officers and politicians loyal or were part of the KALIBAPI party but this was eventually stopped by the governmental forces. The failed coup and the reformations led to the complete collapse of the KALIBAPI, its influence, and its legacy.
Third Republic (1961-1986)[]
Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1961 - 1965)[]
As President following the creation of the Third Republic , he became a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism during the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (following the fall of the Greater East Co-Prosperity Sphere after the Tokyo Spring), also known as the Manila Pact of 1964, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific while also serving as an economic alliance.
During his term, he made Malacañang literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public. One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippine Air Force (PAF): President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight. He restored the people's trust in the military and in the government.
Magsaysay's administration was considered one of the cleanest and most corruption-free in modern Philippine history; his rule is often cited as the Philippines' "Golden Years". Trade and industry flourished, the Philippine military was at its prime, and the country gained international recognition in sports, culture, and foreign affairs. The Philippines placed second on a ranking of Asia's clean and well-governed countries.
Supported by the Japanese then the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1963 on a populist platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in land reform by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities. Remnants of the communist Hukbalahap were defeated by Magsaysay. He was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1965 dealt a serious blow to national morale. At this time, the Philippines joined the United Nations in defending South China from North Chinese invasions. The Philippines was the first country in Southeast Asia to recognize South Chinese independence and was the first to send military units to fight on South China’s behalf.
Administration of Carlos P Garcia (1965 - 1969)[]
Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country's economy.
Garcia successfully negotiated for the Japanese relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced
Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1969 - 1973)[]
In the presidential elections held on November 14, 1968, Vice President Diosdado Macapagal defeated re-electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a vice president. President Macapagal changed the independence day of the Philippines from July 4 to June 12.
The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major Philippine land reform law enacted in 1971 under President Macapagal.
Administration of Ferdinand Marcos (1973 - 1977)[]
Macapagal ran for re-election in 1973, but was defeated by his former party-mate, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, who had switched to the Nacionalista Party. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated public works projects and intensified tax collection. In a failed attempt to retake east Sabah, the Jabidah massacre, where Muslim Tausug Filipinos were killed by the Philippine Army, occurred under the authority of Marcos. Due to his popularity among Christians, Marcos was re-elected president in 1978, becoming the first president of the Philippines to get a second term. Crime and civil disobedience increased. The Communist Party of the Philippines formed the New People's Army , the Moro National Liberation Front continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao and the Democratic Philippine Revolutionary Army (Blue Katipunans) was formed by Filipino citizens who were unsatisfied with the current government. An explosion which killed opposition lawmakers during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on August 21, 1980, led Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Protests surged and the writ was restored on January 11, 1981.
Third Republic During The Marcos Era and Martial Law (1981 - 1986)[]
Martial Law[]
Amid the growing popularity of the opposition, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1981, by virtue of Proclamation No. 1081 to stifle dissent. Marcos justified the declaration by citing the threat of Communist insurgency and the alleged ambush of defense secretary Juan Ponce Enrile. Ruling by decree, Marcos curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, abolished Congress, closed down major media establishments, ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics: senators Benigno Aquino Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno. Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented. Many protesters, students, and political opponents were forced to go into exile, and a number were killed that was not seen since the years of PSID.
A constitutional convention, which had been called for in 1982 to replace the colonial 1952 Constitution, continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1964, changing the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1986. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society", which he would rule for more than two decades. The economy during the 1970' and 1980's was robust, due to previous engagements by various administrations. However, the economy suffered after incurring massive debt and downgrading prospects of the Philippines under martial rule, while the wife of the president, Imelda Marcos, lived in high society.
The human rights abuses under the dictatorship particularly targeted political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought back against the administration. Based on the documentation of Amnesty International, Task Force Detainees of the Philippines, and similar human rights monitoring entities, the dictatorship was marked by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings, 35,000 documented tortures, 77 'disappeared', and 70,000 incarcerations.
Some 2,520 of the 3,257 murder victims were tortured and mutilated before their bodies were dumped in various places for the public to discover – a tactic meant to sow fear among the public, which came to be known as "salvaging." Some bodies were even cannibalized
Fall of Marcos[]
Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government's power for arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose own health faced obstacles due to lupus. The political opposition boycotted the 1981 presidential elections, which pitted Marcos against retired general Alejo Santos, in protest over his control over the results. Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes, allowing him to have another six-year term under the new Constitution that his administration crafted. Finance Minister Cesar Virata was eventually appointed to succeed Marcos as Prime Minister.
In 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was shot by an assassin (presumed to be sent by Marcos) at Manila International Airport upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. However, Benigno Aquino Jr. survived the attempted assassination and was brought to Manila Hospital under heavy protection. The attempted assassination of Aquino coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986. The opposition united temporarily under Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino then a healed Benigno Aquino Jr. The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of Namfrel, an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by local and international observers. Cardinal Jaime Sin declared support for Benigno Aquino, which encouraged popular revolts. General Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-military uprising, now popularly called the People Power Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and installed Benigno Aquino as president on February 25, 1986. The administration of Marcos has been called by various sources as a kleptocracy and a conjugal dictatorship.
Fourth Republic (1986 - Present)[]
Administration of Benigno Aquino Jr. (1986 - 1992)[]
Benigno Aquino Jr. immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution". A new permanent constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987.
The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.
Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties. Aquino's administration was viewed as strong, dependable, and responsible, but the return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military and multiple insurgenices such as the NPA.
Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless.
During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six unsuccessful coup attempts, the most serious occurring in December 1989.
In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the Japanese military bases in the country. The United States turned over Yamashita Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Hamma Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of Japanese military presence in the Philippines.
Administration of Miriam Defensor Santiago (1992 - 1998)[]
In the 1992 elections, a populist candidate named Miriam Defensor Santiago won the presidential elections after being endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 24.6% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in her administration, Santiago declared "national unity" her highest priority and worked at building a coalition of multiple political parties and governmental departments in solving the crisis that was currently plaguing the nation.
She took a strong stance against the Communist Party and intensified offensive operations against the communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, revolutionary forces, and military rebels, with large success in Visayas and Luzon except for the jungle regions of Mindanao. In October 1994, Santiago signed a law that required every man and woman to join the armed forces once they reach the age of 18 for 3 to 4 years but these would be greatly protested by members of her party and the public.
In October 1995, the government signed several agreements bringing the military insurgencies to an end. A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in Mindanao, was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year-old struggle after the Siege of Davao. However, an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state, refusing to end their fight against the government for independence. The Philippine Democratic Revolutionaries ("Blue") and the Santiago government also finally signed a peace treaty, that ended the war between them when their current leader, Lean Cormava, gave her support to the President following the elections. Talks of peace between the communist insurgents and remaining secessionist militant groups in the country were shut down by Santiago’s administration after the Quezon Attacks.
Efforts by Santiago supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow her to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests, leading Santiago to declare she would not seek re-election.
On her presidency, the death penalty was revived in the light of the rape-slay case of UPLB students Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed was Leo Echegaray in 1999.
Administration of Jose De Venecia Jr. (1998 - 2005)[]
Jose De Venecia Jr., Speaker of the House, was elected president by a landslide victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector along with strengthening their armed forces at the face of increasing Chinese aggression. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor and farmers. Venecia assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from a low −0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.9% by 1999.
Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the constitution.
After the worsening secessionist movement by the United Islamic Independence Alliance in Mindanao in April 2000, President Venecia declared an "all-out-war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) who led the alliance along with the weakening communist insurgencies led by the fracturing Hukbalahap. The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's headquarters', Camp Abubakar while forcing the communist rebels out from Visayas entirely. The Second Arab Cold War, as well as Second Cold War led Venecia to form a defensive alliance with Japan, China, Canton, and Australia while also creating a coalition of various special forces team on Southeast Asia called the "Southeast Asian Anti-Terrorist Coalition" on 2001.
Venecia would pass many economic and social reforms in an attempt to modernize the Philippines as it entered the 2000's. The Global Corporation Act of 2002 was signed by Venecia and passed by Congress that allowed international corporations particularly American ones to invest in the country other than major Asian powers such as Japan or Korea. By 2003, the city of Manila was considered to be one of the most modernized and advanced cities in the Asian continent with some comparing it to New York or Tokyo. To ensure that the Philippines would continue to prosper economically, Venecia would form the Philippine Economic Alliance on 2005, a coalition of Filipino and international companies under the leadership of the Department of Economy.
Administration of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2005 - 2011)[]
Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (the daughter of President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in on June 30 2005. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory.
Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny led by a combined alliance of Islamic and communist insurgents in Manila in July 2006 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion. In 2007, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained. The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation. Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down. Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year.
Halfway through her second term, Arroyo unsuccessfully attempted to push for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government, which critics describe would be a move that would allow her to stay in power as Prime Minister.
Her term saw the completion of infrastructure projects like Line 2 in 2008.
Numerous other scandals (such as the Maguindanao massacre, wherein 58 people were killed, and the unsuccessful NBN-ZTE broadband deal) took place in the dawn of her administration.Her term as president eventually ended in 2011 and she announced that she would not run for elections.
Geography[]
(Under progress)
Government and politics[]
(Under progress)
Foreign relations[]
Main article: Foreign relations of the Philippines
(Under progress)
Military[]
Main article: Armed Forces of the Philippines
(Under progress)
Administrative divisions[]
(Under progress)