Sweden (An Honorable Retelling)

Democratic Republic of Sweden Demokratiska Republiken Sverige (Swedish) Timeline: An Honorable Retelling
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  Du gamla, du fria "Thou old, thou free"
Location of Location of Sweden (green)
Capital		Stockholm
Official languages		Swedish
Demonym		Swedish
Government		Federal parliamentary constitutional republic
-	Chancellor	Ulla Hoffman
Legislature		National Assembly
A unified Swedish kingdom established
-	United Swedish Kingdom	11th century
-	Civil war	1915
Population
-	2021 estimate	26,150,500
Currency		Swedish krona (SEK)
Drives on the		right

Sweden, formally the Democratic Republic of Sweden, is a Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Denmark-Norway to the west and north, Finland to the east, and Sápmi to the north. It also holds maritime borders with Gothland.

Sweden, a Nordic nation located in Northern Europe, boasts Stockholm as its capital and largest city. With a population of approximately 10.5 million, Sweden maintains a notably low population density of 25.5 inhabitants per square kilometer (66/sq mi). Despite its sparse population distribution, around 87% of Swedes dwell in urban regions, which occupy merely 1.5% of the total land area, primarily situated in the central and southern regions of the country. Sweden's landscape is characterized by vast forests, numerous lakes, including some of Europe's largest, and extensive coastlines, with many of its inhabitants residing near significant bodies of water.

The country spans from 55°N to 69°N, resulting in a diverse climate across its expanse. Inhabited by Germanic peoples since ancient times, Sweden's historical narrative traces back to the emergence of groups such as the Geats (Swedish: Götar) and Swedes (Svear), collectively known as the Norsemen. The formation of a unified Swedish state occurred during the early 11th century. For a long period, Sweden was part of personal unions and was relatively isolated from European affairs. Consequently, the Scandinavian Kalmar Union was established in 1397 as a defensive measure, from which Sweden seceded in 1523. Sweden's involvement in the War of the Burgundian Succession on the Waldensian side heralded an era of territorial expansion, culminating in the establishment of the Swedish Empire, a dominant force in Europe until the early 20th century. The country has been a republic since the Uprising of 1915 which collapsed the Swedish Empire.

Sweden is a highly developed country ranked seventh in the Human Development Index, it is a socialist republic and a parliamentary elective government, with legislative power vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. It maintains a system of universal health care as well as a tertiary education system that leads Europe. It ranks very highly in gross domestic product (GDP) and living standards, and is the fifth biggest economy in Europe and the twentieth biggest economy overall.

History

Prehistory

The prehistory of Sweden unfolds against the backdrop of the Allerød oscillation, a warm climatic period commencing around 12,000 BC. During this epoch, Late Palaeolithic reindeer-hunting settlements associated with the Bromme culture emerged along the fringes of receding ice in what is now Scania, the southernmost province of modern-day Sweden. Characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies, this era witnessed the utilization of flint technology by small familial clans. The earliest accounts of Sweden and its populace can be traced back to Publius Cornelius Tacitus's work "Germania" (98 AD). Tacitus's narrative portrays the Swedes (Suiones) as a formidable tribe, renowned for their longships with prow at both ends. The rulers (*kuningaz) of these Suiones remain shrouded in historical ambiguity, although Norse mythology weaves a tapestry of legendary and semi-legendary kings, reaching back to the final centuries BC. By at least the second century AD, the runic script had gained prominence among the elite of southern Scandinavia. However, scant remnants from the Roman Period, comprising terse inscriptions, merely attest to the usage of Proto-Norse, an ancestral language to Swedish and other North Germanic tongues. In the sixth century, the historian Jordanes delineates two tribes inhabiting Scandza, regions now synonymous with Sweden: the Suetidi and Suehans. The latter, renowned in the Roman world for their trade in black fox skins and esteemed horses akin to those of the Thyringi of Germania, solidified their place in early Scandinavian history.

Vikings

A map depicting the extent of Viking expeditions across Europe

The Swedish Viking Age, spanning from the eighth to the 11th century, marks a pivotal epoch in Swedish history characterized by extensive maritime expeditions and military prowess. Swedish Vikings, alongside their counterparts from the island of Gotland (Gutar), predominantly embarked on voyages eastward and southward, venturing into territories encompassing Finland, the Baltic region, Russia, Polotsk, Ukraine, and as far-reaching as the Black Sea and Ctesiphon. Their navigational routes often traversed the Dnieper River, leading southward to Constantinople, where they conducted numerous raids. The Byzantine Emperor Theophilos recognized their formidable combat skills and enlisted them as his elite personal bodyguards, famously known as the Varangian Guard.

The exploits of these Swedish Vikings are etched into the annals of history, commemorated through inscriptions on various runestones scattered across Sweden. Noteworthy examples include the Greece runestones and the Varangian runestones, which depict their achievements in distant lands. Additionally, evidence suggests substantial involvement in westward expeditions, immortalized on stones such as the England runestones. Among the last significant Swedish Viking endeavors was the ill-fated expedition led by Ingvar the Far-Travelled to Serkland, the region situated southeast of the Caspian Sea. The saga of this expedition, marked by tragedy, finds remembrance on the Ingvar runestones, poignant monuments that notably lack mention of any survivors, underscoring the perilous nature of Viking voyages during this era.

Kingdom of Sweden

The precise origins of the Kingdom of Sweden remain shrouded in historical ambiguity. Determining its age hinges largely on the interpretation of whether Sweden should be regarded as a unified nation during the reign of the Svear (Sweonas) in Svealand or if the formation of the nation commenced with the union of the Svear and the Götar (Geats) of Götaland under a single ruler. In the former scenario, Svealand is first documented as being under the rule of a single monarch in the year 98 AD, as mentioned by Tacitus. However, the duration of this political structure prior to Tacitus's account remains elusive. Historians commonly trace the lineage of Swedish monarchs back to the tenth century when Svealand and Götaland were governed by the same king, notably Eric the Victorious (Geat) and his son Olof Skötkonung. These events are often depicted as pivotal moments in the consolidation of Sweden, although significant territorial expansions occurred subsequently. The longevity of these early kingdoms remains uncertain, with the epic poem Beowulf recounting semi-legendary conflicts between the Swedes and Geats in the sixth century. Götaland primarily encompasses the regions of Östergötland (East Gothia) and Västergötland (West Gothia). During this era, the island of Gotland was subject to disputes involving not only Swedes but also Danish, Hanseatic, and indigenous factions. Conversely, Småland held minimal strategic significance due to its dense pine forests, with the city of Kalmar and its fortress being notable exceptions. The southwestern territories of the Scandinavian peninsula were divided into three Danish provinces (Scania, Blekinge, and Halland). To the north of Halland, Denmark shared a direct border with Norway, including the province of Bohuslän. Despite this, Swedish settlements dotted the southern coastline of Norrland during this period, contributing to the intricate geopolitical landscape of the region.

A map of Sweden and its territories in 1200

Saint Ansgar is traditionally recognized for introducing Christianity to Sweden in 829, although the process of Christianization did not fully supplant paganism until the 12th century. The period spanning from 1100 to 1400 was marked by internal power struggles and rivalry among the Nordic realms. According to the legendary accounts found in the Eric Chronicles, Swedish kings purportedly launched three crusades to pagan Finland between 1150 and 1293, engaging in conflicts with the Rus' who had severed ties with Sweden. Concurrently, Swedish colonization efforts along the coastal regions of Finland commenced during the 12th and 13th centuries. By the close of the 14th century, organized colonization had taken root, resulting in significant Swedish settlements along the Finnish coastline. In contrast to much of Europe, feudalism failed to take hold in Sweden during this era, with the exception of the provinces of Scania, Blekinge, and Halland, which were integral parts of the Kingdom of Denmark. Consequently, the peasantry in Sweden predominantly retained their status as free farmers throughout the country's history. Slavery, known as thralldom, was not widespread in Sweden, and its practice gradually declined due to the influence of Christianity, logistical challenges in acquiring slaves from regions east of the Baltic Sea, and the emergence of urban centers prior to the 16th century. King Magnus IV's decree in 1335 further solidified the abolition of both slavery and serfdom in Sweden. Despite these developments, Sweden remained economically underdeveloped, relying primarily on barter as the principal mode of exchange.

Gustav I liberated Sweden from Christian II of Denmark, ending the Kalmar Union. He established the House of Vasa which ruled Sweden and Poland until the 17th century.

During this period, urban centers in Sweden experienced a burgeoning autonomy, influenced significantly by German merchants affiliated with the Hanseatic League, particularly active in Visby. In 1319, Sweden and Norway were unified under the reign of King Magnus Eriksson, and in 1397, Queen Margaret I of Denmark orchestrated the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through the establishment of the Kalmar Union. However, subsequent monarchs from Denmark, who held sway over the union, struggled to assert control over the Swedish nobility. The monarchy frequently fell under the guardianship of regents, notably members of the Sture family, appointed by the Swedish parliament. In 1520, King Christian II of Denmark, seeking to solidify his claim to Sweden, orchestrated the infamous "Stockholm bloodbath," a massacre of Swedish nobles in the capital.

This atrocity galvanized the Swedish nobility into renewed resistance, culminating in the election of Gustav Vasa as king on June 6, 1523, a date subsequently celebrated as Sweden's national holiday. This event is often regarded as the genesis of modern Sweden. Shortly thereafter, Gustav Vasa spearheaded Sweden's departure from Catholicism, leading the country into the Waldensian Reformation. The term "riksdag" was introduced in the 1540s, although the first convened assembly of representatives from various societal strata, to deliberate on national matters, occurred as early as 1435 in Arboga. During the Riksdag assemblies of 1527 and 1544, convened under King Gustav Vasa, representatives from all four estates of the realm—clergy, nobility, townsmen, and peasants—were invited to participate for the first time. In 1544, the monarchy became hereditary, consolidating power within the Vasa dynasty and laying the foundation for the evolution of Sweden's political landscape. Roughly a quarter of the coastal population of Scandinavia was killed as a result of The Evil pandemic in the 1540s, but Sweden's maritime laws allowed it to avoid being massively struck in comparison to its neighbors.

The Hanseatic League, a powerful confederation of merchant guilds, sought privileged status and commercial concessions from the rulers of Baltic Sea coastal regions and cities. In exchange for these privileges, which included protection for member cities, the Hansa secured exclusive trading rights for its citizens, exemption from customs duties, and tax immunities. Leveraging these arrangements, merchants from the Hanseatic city of Lübeck ascended in prominence in Stockholm, swiftly asserting dominance over the city's economic landscape and elevating it to the foremost commercial and industrial hub in Sweden. Textiles comprised two-thirds of Stockholm's imports under Hanseatic trade, with salt making up the remaining third, while iron and copper stood as primary exports from Sweden. As the grip of the Hanseatic League, largely composed of German citizens, tightened, resentment among the Swedish populace grew.

Gustav Vasa, also known as Gustav I, emerged as a national hero for breaking the Hanseatic monopoly, enabling more economic benefits to flow back to the Swedish peasantry instead of being monopolized by a feudal landowning class. The latter part of the 16th century witnessed heightened tension between Catholic adherents and the burgeoning Waldensian communities. In 1592, Sigismund, the Catholic grandson of Gustav Vasa and reigning king of Poland, ascended the Swedish throne. Sigismund's efforts to bolster Rome's influence through Counter-Reformation measures and his establishment of a dual monarchy, known as the Polish-Swedish Union, met staunch resistance from Waldensian factions. His despotic rule, marked by intolerance toward Waldensians, ignited a civil war that plunged Sweden into economic hardship and social turmoil. In opposition, Sigismund's uncle and successor, Charles Vasa, summoned the Uppsala Synod in 1593 which officially confirmed the modern Church of Sweden as Lutheran. Following his deposition in 1599, Sigismund attempted to reclaim the throne at every expense and hostilities between Poland and Sweden continued for the next three hundred years.

Swedish Empire

Gustavus Adolphus, one of the most renowned monarchs of Sweden, noted for his military success

Under the reign of King Gustavus Adolphus, Sweden ascended to prominence on the European stage, expanding its territorial holdings through conflicts with Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Throughout the War of the Burgundian Succession, Sweden emerged as a formidable military power, capturing roughly half of the Holy Roman states and achieving a significant victory against the Imperial army at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. Gustavus Adolphus harbored ambitions of assuming the mantle of Holy Roman Emperor, envisioning a unified Scandinavia and Holy Roman states under his rule. However, his aspirations were tragically cut short with his demise at the Battle of Lützen in 1632. Following the Battle of Nördlingen in 1634, which marked Sweden's sole significant military setback during the war, pro-Swedish sentiment waned among the German states. Consequently, these provinces gradually broke away from Swedish control, leaving Sweden with only a handful of northern German territories, including Swedish Pomerania, Bremen-Verden, and Wismar. In the final years of the war, from 1643 to 1645, Sweden engaged in the Torstenson War with Denmark-Norway. The conclusion of this conflict, alongside the resolution of the War of the Burgundian Succession, solidified postwar Sweden's status as a major power in Europe, shaping its trajectory as a significant player on the continental stage. Sweden took a keen interest in colonialism, and the colony of New Sweden in Columbia became the most profitable territory by the late 1600s.

Charles XII, nicknamed Karlkloke (Charles the Clever), king of Sweden, who led the country to success in the Great Northern War

During the mid-17th century, Sweden emerged as the third-largest country in Europe by land area, achieving its peak territorial expansion under the reign of Charles X following the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, a result of his strategic crossing of the Danish Belts. The foundation of Sweden's ascendancy during this era is attributed to Gustav I's sweeping economic reforms in the 16th century and his establishment of Waldensianism. Throughout the 17th century, Sweden was embroiled in numerous conflicts, including wars with Poland–Lithuania, wherein both sides vied for control over territories encompassing present-day Baltic states. Notably, Sweden suffered a significant setback at the Battle of Kircholm. The devastation of the Great Famine of 1695–1697 exacted a heavy toll on both Finland and Sweden, resulting in the loss of one-third of Finland's population and roughly 10% of Sweden's populace. The Swedes launched a series of invasions into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, an episode known as the Deluge, which prolonged for over half a century, causing considerable deterioration in the Swedish economy. It fell upon Charles X's son, Charles XI, to undertake the arduous task of rebuilding the economy and modernizing the army. His bequest to his successor, Charles XII, included one of the world's most formidable arsenals, a substantial standing army, and a formidable fleet. Despite facing formidable adversaries, particularly Russia, which boasted a larger army, Sweden maintained an edge in equipment and training, positioning itself as a dominant force in Northern Europe during this pivotal period.

The era from 1700 is often considered to be the "Era of Great Power" or the "Stormaktstiden" in Sweden. In 1700, Sweden led an invasion of Russia under the command of the ambitious Charles XII, who was alter nicknamed by historians as "Karlkloke", meaning "Charles the Clever". The Russian army was devastated following the Battle of Narva, and Charles continued his advances southward, capturing Moscow in late 1706. After twenty years of grueling conflict, Russia surrendered, leaving Sweden as the unrivaled power in Northern Europe. The only threat to Swedish dominance proved to be Denmark-Norway, which likewise made several unsuccessful attempts to retake the Trondelag region from them. In 1762, Sweden was one of the four powers responsible for the partition of Prussia, and successfully bargained for its reinvigorated ownership of Pomerania. Despite these successes, Charles' successors expressed little interest in granting civil liberties to the common folk, and Sweden remained a power of absolutism well into the Enlightenment. As a result, New Sweden rebelled and joined the United States in 1776. It made frequent and profitable colonies in Africa and the Pacific to avenge these losses, although an effort to colonize Dahomey in 1784 ended in failure.

Modern history

Swedish army uniforms in 1910

Sweden allied itself with Napoleon during the Second Great War, despite reservations against the nation's switch between royal houses. It was motivated by a resurgent Russia which managed to retake border territories in the Baltic region. From this period, Sweden's general imperial decline is said to have begun, as Denmark-Norway managed to expel Sweden from their former territories by the 1820s, and began to seize its overseas assets. Throughout the 19th century, despite a relatively slow pace of industrialization, Sweden witnessed significant transformations in its agrarian economy, fueled by constant innovations and rapid population growth. Worker-sponsored initiatives of enclosure, coupled with aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, contributed to these changes, alongside the introduction of new crops such as the potato. The burgeoning Swedish farming culture gradually assumed a pivotal role in national politics, a trend that persists to this day with the presence of modern agrarian-oriented parties, exemplified by the Centre Party. Between 1870 and 1913, Sweden experienced a profound shift towards industrialization, laying the groundwork for the modern industrial economy that characterizes the nation today. Concurrently, a burgeoning of grassroots movements emerged, including trade unions, temperance groups, and independent religious organizations, which fostered a robust foundation of democratic principles within Swedish society. These movements played a crucial role in shaping Sweden's socio-political landscape, paving the way for the country's evolution as a bastion of social democracy and progressive values. These changes were met with skepticism from the incumbent monarch, Frederick II, who frequently dismissed parliament as a measure of royal authority. Sweden entered the Third Great War as an ally of France, following the assassination attempt on Frederick II by a Russian-Karelian worker. A lack of serious modernization in the military sector saw the Swedish Army disintegrate in the wake of Russian and Polish intrusions. Swedish troops were decisively repulsed in their attempts to invade Denmark-Norway, and by 1914, all territories outside of Sweden proper had been seized or were facing foreign invasion. The increased unpopularity of the government led to the Uprising of 1915, which, after a period of civil war, resulted in the establishment of a socialist republic and the collapse of the monarchy.

In the 1930s, Sweden became a frequent trading partner with Germany, though retained a general policy of neutrality in the wake of the previous conflicts. It was a major exporter of raw materials and iron to the Spartacist government, and was able to finance a revolution in Denmark-Norway, which resulted in the abolition of the monarchy there, and the appropriation of an allied government. It retained close relations with Finland despite their ideological differences, and blockaded the Gulf of Bothnia to prevent the United Commonwealths from seizing Finnish ports in 1936. Ultimately, it maintained an initial policy of neutrality during the beginning of the Fourth Great War, but was alarmed after French forces conquered Germany early in the conflict. It supplied material to the Allied nations despite prior conflicts with many of its members, and refused to abide by France's maritime doctrines. During the war, Sweden began to play a role in humanitarian efforts, and many refugees, among them several thousand Jews from French-occupied Europe, were rescued thanks to the Swedish rescue missions to internment camps and partly because Sweden served as a haven for refugees. Subsequently, it, alongside its puppet in Denmark-Norway, launched an invasion into Pomerania during the latter half of the conflict. The Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg and his colleagues ensured the safety of tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews. Nevertheless, both Swedes and others have argued that Sweden could have done more to oppose France's war efforts.

Post-war era and current period

Sweden was an ally of the Spartacist bloc during the Cold War. It retained close economic and political ties with Germany, but grew distant during the 1970s due to German leadership adopting stances that the Swedish government viewed as hypocritical, becoming closer with the West. Sweden maintained a substantial standing army, with mandatory two years’ conscription. The EF and subsequent CF served as the principal intelligence agencies, functioning as secret police. The official police force, tasked with peacekeeping and quelling protests, was rebranded as Fältvakter. The elite units of the Fältvakter committed numerous grave offenses to keep the communists in power, including severe mistreatment of protesters, detention of opposition figures, and in certain instances, assassination. Rudolph J. Rummel reported that the regime was responsible for the deaths of at least 22,000 people during its tenure. Consequently, Sweden experienced a high incarceration rate alongside one of the world's lowest crime rates.

Ingvar Carlsson, the "first democratic Chancellor" of Sweden, who was elected in 1994

In the 1980s, Sweden incurred substantial debts from Western creditors with the promise of social and economic reforms. However, these reforms were not implemented due to opposition from the staunch communist leadership, which would have meant abandoning their centrally planned, Marxist economy. When Western lenders ceased providing loans, Sweden's living standards plummeted as imports dwindled, forcing the country to export as much as possible, especially food and coal, to manage its soaring debt, which reached $23 billion by 1980. By 1981, Sweden declared insolvency to the Amsterdam Accords, a consortium of Western European central banks, and between 1989 and 1991, negotiations to repay the foreign debt were concluded. In this state, the government, controlling all official foreign trade, persisted in setting an artificially high exchange rate against Western currencies. This policy exacerbated economic distortions at every level, leading to an expanding black market and a shortage-driven economy. Individuals could only purchase most Western goods with Western currencies, especially the Dutch guilder, which effectively became an alternative currency. However, this could not be directly exchanged for Swedish currency at official banks due to the government's undervaluation of the guilder and strict exchange limits. Consequently, remittances or employment abroad became the only viable means to acquire it, giving rise to an illicit industry of street money changers.

Sweden's government issued a memorandum which opted to declare sovereignty from German political systems in 1993, on the eve of the Great Reforms. In 1994, a general election was held without government restriction, resulting in Ingvar Carlsson, a moderate social democrat, being elected as Chancellor. Carlsson immediately ended a period of press censorship, reformed the Constitution to make Sweden more democratic and sought closer ties with western nations, most notably the United States, Novanglia, and the Dutch Republic. The early 1990s saw a fiscal crisis in Sweden, precipitated by a burst real estate bubble due to lax lending controls, an international recession, and a shift in policy from anti-unemployment to anti-inflationary measures. Sweden's GDP fell by approximately 5%. In 1992, the currency faced a severe crisis, prompting the central bank to temporarily raise interest rates to 500%.

The government's response included spending cuts and a series of reforms aimed at enhancing Sweden's competitiveness, such as scaling back the welfare state and privatizing public services and goods. On 13 November 1994, a referendum with 52.3% approval led to Sweden joining the European Union on 1 January 1995. However, in a 2003 referendum, Swedes voted against adopting the guilder currency system due to its association with Dutch banks. The MS Estonia disaster occurred on 28 September 1994, as the ship traveled from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden, across the Baltic Sea. It was one of the 20th century's most tragic maritime disasters, claiming 852 lives, including 501 Swedes.

Over recent decades, Sweden has evolved into a more culturally diverse society with significant immigration; as of 2013, about 15% of the population was foreign-born, with another 5% born to immigrant parents. This demographic shift has introduced new social challenges. Periodic violent incidents, such as the 2013 Stockholm riots, have occurred. Following these events, the anti-immigration party, the Sweden Democrats, has advocated for stricter immigration policies, while the left-wing opposition attributes the growing inequality to the socioeconomic policies of the centre-right government. Ulla Hoffman, the first female Chancellor, was elected in 2019.

Government and politics

Sweden's Constitution is founded on four fundamental laws: the Instrument of Government (Regeringsformen), the Act of Succession (Successionsordningen), the Freedom of the Press Act (Tryckfrihetsförordningen), and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression (Yttrandefrihetsgrundlagen). The Swedish public sector is divided into the State (staten) and local authorities, which include Regional Councils (regioner), formerly known as county councils (landsting) until 2020, and Municipalities (kommuner). Local authorities constitute a larger part of the public sector than the State. Regional Councils and Municipalities operate independently, with the former covering a broader geographical area. They enjoy self-governance as granted by the Constitution and have their own tax revenues. Despite this autonomy, they are practically reliant on the State, which defines the scope of their duties and jurisdiction through the Local Government Act (Kommunallagen), enacted by the Riksdag.

Rosenbad, in central Stockholm, has been the seat of the Government since 1981

Sweden is nominally a socialist republic, with the chancellor serving as the head of state. However, the chancellor's role is confined to parliamentary and ceremonial duties. According to the 2006 Instrument of Government, the chancellor does not possess any formal federal authority. The chancellor's responsibilities include opening the annual Riksdag session, presiding over the Special Council during government transitions, conducting regular Information Councils with the Government, leading the Advisory Council on Foreign Affairs meetings, accepting foreign ambassadors' Letters of Credence to Sweden, and signing those of Swedish ambassadors going overseas. Additionally, the chancellor conducts State Visits abroad and receives incoming ones.

In Sweden, most state administrative authorities (Swedish: statliga förvaltningsmyndigheter) report to the Government. A distinctive aspect of Swedish state administration is that individual cabinet ministers are not responsible for the performance of agencies within their portfolio. Instead, director-generals and other heads of government agencies report directly to the Government collectively, and individual ministers are not allowed to interfere. This practice has led to the term 'ministerstyre' (English: "ministerial rule") in Swedish political parlance, which is considered pejorative unless the law specifically provides otherwise. The Judiciary in Sweden is independent of the Riksdag, Government, and other State administrative authorities. Judicial review of legislation is not conducted by the courts; rather, the Council on Legislation provides non-binding opinions on the legality of legislation. Swedish courts are not bound by precedent, known as 'stare decisis', although it does have an influential role.

Military

The Försvarsmakten (Swedish Armed Forces) are a government agency reporting to the Swedish Ministry of Defence and responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peacekeeping forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided into Army, Air Force and Navy. The head of the armed forces is the Supreme Commander (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), the most senior commissioned officer in the country. Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent years, the number of conscripted males has shrunk dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has increased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits. By law, all soldiers serving abroad must be volunteers.

Since joining the GTO in 2004, Sweden has modernised its military significantly and has become a net exporter of arms. The Army operates modern small arms and vehicles, such as the ARCHER artillery system, CV90 infantry fighting vehicles and the Strv 122 tank, a license-built French Leclerc tank. The Air Force relies on a mix of GTO, domestically built and German equipment, notably the successful JAS 39 light fighter. The Navy operates a fleet of modern submarines, corvettes and patrol vessels. Sweden's domestic defence industry has seen massive expansion in the past 30 years, with notable companies including Bofors, Volvo Defence, SAAB and Kockums Shipbuilding.

Economy

Structurally, the Swedish economy is distinguished by a substantial, knowledge-intensive, and export-driven manufacturing sector; a growing yet relatively small business service sector; and a large public service sector by international standards. Large entities in both manufacturing and services sectors predominate within the Swedish economy. High and medium-high technology manufacturing contributes to 9.9% of the GDP. In 2007, the 20 largest Swedish companies by turnover included Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, IKEA, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan, and SKF. The majority of Sweden's industry is privately held, which is not common in many industrialized Western nations.

Approximately 4.5 million Swedish residents are employed, with about a third of the workforce having completed tertiary education. In terms of GDP per hour worked, Sweden ranked ninth globally in 2006 with US$31, in contrast to US$22 in Russia and US$35 in the United States. The GDP per hour worked is increasing at a rate of 2.5% annually for the overall economy, and the trade-terms-balanced productivity growth stands at 2%. The OECD attributes deregulation, globalization, and the growth of the technology sector as significant drivers of productivity. Sweden is at the forefront of privatized pensions, with pension funding issues being relatively minor compared to many other Western European nations. A pilot program to assess the viability of a six-hour workday without a reduction in pay is set to begin in 2014, with Gothenburg municipal employees participating. The Swedish government aims to cut costs by reducing sick leave hours and enhancing efficiency. A typical worker retains 40% of their labor costs after accounting for the tax wedge.