Wales (An Honorable Retelling)

Republic of Wales
Gweriniaeth Cymru
Timeline: An Honorable Retelling
Republic of Wales Gweriniaeth CymruTimeline: An Honorable Retelling
Flag	Coat of arms
	Motto: ; Pleidiol Wyf i'm Gwlad; "I am true to my country"
	Anthem: ; Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau; "The Old Land of My Fathers" https://althistory.fandom.com/wiki/File:Hen_Wlad_fy_Nhadau.mp3;
	Location of Wales (An Honorable Retelling) Location of Wales (green)
Capital; (and largest city)	Cardiff
Other cities	Bangor, Swansea, Port Talbot, Newport
Official languages	Welsh, English
Demonym	Welsh
Government	Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic
Legislature	Parliament
Establishment
Currency	European guilder (ƒ)
Drives on the	right

The Republic of Wales (Welsh: Gweriniaeth Cymru), also known as the Welsh Republic or simply Wales, is a country in Western Europe, situated on the British Isles. It shares a land border with England to its east, and maritime borders with Ireland and Scotland to the west and north. As of 2021, the population was 3,107,494. It covers a total area of 21,218 square kilometers (8,192 sq mi) with over 2,700 kilometers (1,680 mi) of coastline. The terrain is predominantly mountainous, with higher peaks in the north and central regions, including Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), the highest summit. The country is situated within the north temperate zone and experiences a variable maritime climate. Cardiff is the capital and largest city.

Welsh culture became distinct among the Celtic Britons following the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century. Wales was briefly united under Gruffydd ap Llywelyn in 1055. Following over two centuries of conflict, the conquest of Wales by King Edward I of England was finalized by 1283. However, Owain Glyndŵr initiated the Welsh Revolt against English domination in the early 15th century, momentarily restoring an independent Welsh state with its own national parliament (Welsh: senedd). In the 16th century, Wales was annexed by England and integrated into the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Distinct Welsh politics emerged in the 19th century, with Welsh Liberalism, epitomized by David Lloyd George in the early 20th century, giving way to the rise of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh cultural identity was further suppressed during the period of the Union of England, in which the Welsh language was banned completely from public or private use. Wales became independent in 1983, but disputes between conservative and communist factions led to a civil war, concluding in 1986 with an invasion by Ireland.

Wales is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic, and its current president is Alun Michael, who has served since 1986, when the position became unrivaled. Wales ranks poorly in international measures of quality of life, economic development, and democracy, with multiple commentators connecting this with the prominence of the country's oligarchs. It is a member of the European Community and the League to Enforce Peace, and the only nation in the British Isles that is not a member of the GTO.

Etymology[]

The English words "Wales" and "Welsh" originate from the same Old English root, with "Wealh" as the singular and "Wēalas" as the plural, which is a descendant of the Proto-Germanic "*Walhaz." This term was derived from the name of the Gauls, known to the Romans as "Volcae." It was later used broadly for inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire. The Anglo-Saxons adopted this term specifically for the Britons, and the plural "Wēalas" became the name for their territory, Wales. Historically in Britain, these terms were not limited to modern Wales or the Welsh but referred to anything the Anglo-Saxons associated with the Britons, including other non-Germanic territories in Britain, like Cornwall, and places within Anglo-Saxon territory associated with Britons, such as Walworth in County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire.

The contemporary Welsh call themselves "Cymry," and "Cymru" is the Welsh name for Wales. These terms, pronounced [ˈkəm.rɨ], stem from the Brythonic word "combrogi," meaning "fellow-countrymen," and likely came into use before the 7th century. In literature, they could be spelled "Kymry" or "Cymry," regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised versions of these names, "Cambrian," "Cambric," and "Cambria," persist in names like the Cambrian Mountains and the Cambrian geological period.

History[]

Prehistoric era[]

Modern humans have inhabited Wales for at least 29,000 years. Continuous human habitation dates back to the end of the last ice age, between 12,000 and 10,000 years before present (BP), when Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from Central Europe began migrating to Great Britain. At that time, sea levels were significantly lower than they are today. By about 10,250 BP, Wales was free of glaciers, and the warmer climate allowed the area to become densely forested. The subsequent rise in sea level after the glaciers melted separated Wales and Ireland, creating the Irish Sea. By 8,000 BP, the British Peninsula had become an island. Even at the start of the Neolithic period, around 6,000 BP, sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet (10 meters) lower than current levels.

Neolithic settlers merged with the indigenous population, gradually transitioning from a nomadic lifestyle of hunting and gathering to settled farming around 6,000 BP – a change known as the Neolithic Revolution. They cleared forests to establish pastures and cultivate the land, developed new technologies like ceramics and textile production, and constructed cromlechs such as Pentre Ifan, Bryn Celli Ddu, and Parc Cwm long cairn between approximately 5,800 BP and 5,500 BP. In the ensuing centuries, they absorbed immigrants and embraced ideas from the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic cultures. By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain, the region now known as Wales was divided among various tribes including the Deceangli in the northeast, the Ordovices in the northwest, the Demetae in the southwest, the Silures in the southeast, and the Cornovii in the east.

Roman era[]

CaractacusClaudius — Caractacus, chief of the Celtic Catuvellauni tribe

The Roman conquest of Wales commenced in AD 48 and spanned 30 years, with the occupation enduring over 300 years. The Silures and Ordovices, two native tribes, resisted the conquest. Caractacus, the Ordovices leader, initially succeeded in opposing the Roman incursions into north Wales but ultimately succumbed. Roman governance in Wales was primarily a military occupation, except for the southern coastal area of South Wales, which experienced Romanization. Caerwent, in southeast Wales, was the sole town established by the Romans. Both Caerwent and Carmarthen, located in southern Wales, evolved into Roman civitates. Wales was endowed with abundant mineral resources. The Romans employed their engineering technology to mine significant quantities of gold, copper, and lead, along with smaller amounts of zinc and silver.

During this period, no major industries developed in Wales due to the lack of necessary materials in appropriate combinations and the unsuitability of the forested, mountainous terrain for industrialization. Latin was adopted as the official language of Wales, although Brythonic remained in common use. Romanization was incomplete, yet the elite began identifying as Roman, especially after the 212 edict that extended Roman citizenship to all free men within the Empire. Christianity's influence grew as religious tolerance improved, particularly after Constantine the Great's edict of toleration in 313. Notable early historians, such as the 6th-century cleric Gildas, marked 383 as a pivotal year in Welsh history. In that year, Roman general Magnus Maximus, also known as Macsen Wledig, depleted Britain's troops to pursue imperial ambitions, governing Britain from Gaul as emperor.

Post-Roman era[]

The 400-year span after the fall of Roman authority is the most enigmatic in Welsh history. Following the Roman withdrawal in AD 410, the lowlands of Britain to the east and southeast were overrun by various Germanic tribes, known as the Anglo-Saxons. Some theories suggest that the Anglo-Saxons' cultural dominance resulted from apartheid-like conditions that disadvantaged the Britons. By AD 500, the territory now known as Wales had fragmented into several kingdoms independent of Anglo-Saxon control. The kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed, Ceredigion, Morgannwg, Ystrad Tywi, and Gwent emerged as autonomous Welsh successor states. Archaeological evidence from the Low Countries and future England indicates that early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, aligning with Frankish chronicles. John Davies regards this as consistent with a Celtic Briton victory at Badon Hill against the Saxons, attributed to Arthur by Nennius.

Aethelbald — Æthelbald of Mercia, Anglo-Saxon monarch who launched multiple attempts to conquer Wales

After losing much of present-day West Midlands to Mercia in the 6th and early 7th centuries, a revitalized late-7th-century Powys halted Mercian progression. Æthelbald of Mercia, aiming to protect newly gained territories, constructed Wat's Dyke. Davies suggests this was done with the consent of King Elisedd ap Gwylog of Powys, as this demarcation, stretching north from the River Severn to the Dee estuary, granted him Oswestry. Another hypothesis, following carbon dating that placed the dyke's construction 300 years earlier, posits it was erected by the post-Roman rulers of Wroxeter. King Offa of Mercia appears to have advanced this effort by creating a more extensive earthwork, now called Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa). Davies references Cyril Fox's study of Offa's Dyke, noting that its planning involved some degree of consultation with the kings of Powys.

The southern and eastern regions of Great Britain, lost to English settlement, became known in Welsh as Lloegyr (Modern Welsh Lloegr), a term that may have originally referred to the kingdom of Mercia and later came to denote England as a whole. The Germanic tribes who dominated these lands were consistently called Saeson, meaning "Saxons." The Anglo-Saxons referred to the Romano-British as Walha, signifying 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger.' The Welsh continued to identify themselves as Brythoniaid (Brythons or Britons) well into the Middle Ages. The earliest written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry appears in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan (Moliant Cadwallon, by Afan Ferddig) around 633. In Armes Prydein, believed to be written circa 930–942, the terms Cymry and Cymro are used up to 15 times. However, following the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the people gradually began to prefer the name Cymry over Brythoniad.

High to late Middle Ages[]

Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the sole ruler to unify all of Wales under his command, posthumously referred to as the king of Wales by chroniclers. In 1055, he defeated and killed his adversary Gruffydd ap Rhydderch in battle, reclaiming Deheubarth. Initially the king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he had become the ruler of Wales and had annexed territories along the English border. He governed Wales without internal conflicts, and upon his death, his lands were divided back into the traditional kingdoms. John Davies notes that Gruffydd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, all of Wales acknowledged the kingship of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. For approximately seven brief years, Wales was united under a single ruler, an achievement without precedent or successor." Owain Gwynedd (1100–1170) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh leader to adopt the title princeps Wallensium (prince of the Welsh), a significant title following his victory at the Berwyn range, as stated by Davies. During this period, from 1053 to 1063, Wales experienced no internal strife and enjoyed peace.

Within four years following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, England was completely subdued by the Normans. William I of England set up a series of lordships for his most formidable warriors along the Welsh border, with defined boundaries only to the east, where they adjoined other feudal territories within England. Beginning in the 1070s, these lords started to conquer lands in southern and eastern Wales, beyond the River Wye. The border area, along with any English-held lordships in Wales, was termed Marchia Wallie, the Welsh Marches, where the Marcher lords were not subject to English or Welsh laws. The scope of the March shifted with the changing fortunes of the Marcher lords and Welsh princes.

Llywelyn Fawr, grandson of Owain Gwynedd, born in the year 1173 and later known as Llywelyn the Great, ascended to prominence in the year 1216, when he received the fealty of the Welsh lords at the Council of Aberdyfi, effectively becoming the first Prince of Wales. A major event during his reign was the intervention on behalf of France to invade England in 1229, which culminated in a stalemate. His grandson, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, further secured the recognition of this title in 1267 through the Treaty of Montgomery, negotiated with Henry III of England. However, tensions soon arose, and the imprisonment of Llywelyn’s wife, Eleanor, marked the onset of hostilities with King Edward I of England. After a military defeat, Llywelyn was compelled to acknowledge English overlordship through the Treaty of Aberconwy in 1277. Yet peace proved ephemeral, and in 1282, Edward I launched a decisive conquest of Wales, which ended the rule of the native Welsh princes. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd perished, and his brother Dafydd was executed, thus marking the submission of the remaining Welsh lords to the English Crown.

Owain Glyndŵr mealing — Owain Glyndŵr, leader of the Welsh revolt against England in 1412

The constitutional foundation for the post-conquest administration of North Wales was established in 1284 by the Statute of Rhuddlan, which proclaimed Wales "annexed and united" to the English Crown. Though Wales remained distinct from England, it was governed under the same sovereign. King Edward I divided the governance of the north, entrusting administrative duties to the Justice of Chester and the Justiciar of North Wales, while the Justiciar of South Wales oversaw the southern and western regions. Notably, the royal lordships of Montgomery and Builth Wells were left intact. To consolidate his authority, Edward I erected a series of formidable castles, including those at Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Harlech, and Conwy. The future Edward II, born at Caernarfon in 1284, was the first to bear the title Prince of Wales in 1301, when the principality of northwest Wales was formally granted to him, thus providing him an income from the region.

Despite the formal establishment of English rule, resistance persisted. In 1294–95, Madog ap Llywelyn, claiming the title Prince of Wales in the Penmachno Document, led an unsuccessful revolt. Further rebellion arose in 1316 under Llywelyn Bren. However, the most significant insurrection was led by Owain Glyndŵr against Henry IV of England. In 1404, Glyndŵr was crowned Prince of Wales, receiving recognition from foreign emissaries of France, Castile, and Scotland. He convened several parliamentary assemblies, including a Welsh parliament at Machynlleth. Despite early successes, Glyndŵr’s rebellion was quashed by 1412, and his fate after 1413 remains unknown, with no further record of his life. The penal laws enacted in 1401–02 by the English Parliament reduced the Welsh to the status of second-class citizens. With the failure of Glyndŵr’s rebellion, Welsh hopes for independence were extinguished, and the penal laws persisted until their repeal in 1624. No further attempts were made to overthrow English rule in Wales thereafter.

Early modern period[]

In the year 1536, the population of Wales numbered approximately 278,000 souls, growing to around 360,000 by 1620. This increase in populace was largely attributed to the expansion of rural settlements, where animal husbandry formed the backbone of the Welsh economy. Trade flourished alongside a diversifying economy, bringing a semblance of economic stability. Yet, this burgeoning population surpassed the rate of economic growth, leading to a marked decline in the standard of living. Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Wales boasted a number of small-scale industries, dispersed throughout the land. These enterprises ranged from agricultural pursuits, such as milling and the production of woolen textiles, to mining and quarrying activities. Nonetheless, agriculture remained the predominant source of wealth and subsistence. The industrial era saw the rise of copper smelting, notably in the Swansea region, which benefitted from an abundance of local coal deposits and its favourable harbour position. Swansea’s strategic location allowed it to connect with Cornwall's copper mines to the south, as well as the significant copper reserves at Parys Mountain on Anglesey.

George Childs Dowlais Ironworks 1840 — *Dowlais Ironworks* (1840) by George Childs (1798–1875)

By the 19th century, Swansea had emerged as the preeminent global centre for the smelting of non-ferrous metals. Following close behind copper, the iron industry flourished as the second great metal enterprise in Wales. Iron smelting and manufacturing gained a firm foothold in both northern and southern Wales. In the north, John Wilkinson’s Ironworks at Bersham stood as a pillar of the industry, while the southern region saw Merthyr Tydfil become the epicentre of iron production. The ironworks at Dowlais, Cyfarthfa, Plymouth, and Penydarren cemented Merthyr Tydfil's importance, and by the 1820s, South Wales accounted for 40 per cent of England's pig iron production. This development was a stark contrast to the decadent industrial culture in England, which had been deprived of much of its opportunity after its defeat by France. The 18th century witnessed the emergence of a Welsh bourgeoisie, composed of lawyers, doctors, estate agents, and government officials, who erected substantial dwellings, reflective of their newfound status. During this same period, the slate industry began to ascend, especially in North Wales.

The Penrhyn Quarry, established in 1770 by Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn, had become a dominant force by the late 19th century, employing 15,000 men. Alongside the Dinorwic Quarry, these two establishments dominated the Welsh slate trade. Though slate quarrying has often been considered "the most Welsh of Welsh industries," it was the coal mining industry that came to define Wales and its people. Initially, coal seams were exploited to fuel local metal industries. However, with the advent of canal systems and later railways, Welsh coal mining experienced an extraordinary boom in demand. As the vast South Wales Coalfield was developed, towns such as Cardiff, Swansea, Penarth, and Barry grew into major global exporters of coal. By its zenith in 1913, Wales was producing nearly 61 million tons of coal, securing its place as a cornerstone of the nation's industrial might.

Modern period[]

David Lloyd George, English politician of Welsh descent who was elected Prime Minister of England in 1916

The opening decades of the 20th century witnessed a significant transformation in the political life of Wales. Since 1865, the Liberal Party had dominated the Welsh parliamentary delegation, and by the general election of 1906, the Liberal Party still retained an overwhelming majority in Wales. Of the Welsh Members of Parliament seated at Westminster, only Keir Hardie of Merthyr Tydfil was not of the Liberal persuasion. However, by this time, the fragile Liberal consensus, particularly in the southern coalfields, was being gradually eroded by growing industrial unrest and the increasing political radicalism among the working class. In the year 1916, David Lloyd George, himself of Welsh descent, ascended to the office of Prime Minister of Great Britain, becoming the first Welshman to hold that eminent position. Following the conclusion of the Third Great War, Lloyd George, now at the helm of a coalition government dominated by the Conservative Party, was re-elected in December of 1918.

Nevertheless, his inadequate handling of the coal miners' strike in 1919 was a grievous blow to the Liberal Party’s standing, particularly in South Wales, where the industrial working class began to gravitate increasingly towards the Labour Party. By 1908, the Miners' Federation of Great Britain had forged an official alliance with the Labour Party, and that same year, four Labour candidates, each supported by the miners, succeeded in being elected to Parliament. By 1922, the political landscape had shifted considerably: fully half of the Welsh seats at Westminster were now occupied by Labour representatives, marking the beginning of Labour's long political dominance in Wales—a hegemony that would extend well into the 21st century. The prosperity of Wales's staple industries, which had characterized the first two decades of the 20th century, soon gave way to a prolonged period of economic hardship. From the early 1920s through to the late 1930s, Wales endured an extended slump in its principal industries, precipitating widespread unemployment and deepening poverty across the nation.

Welsh — A soldier of the Wales Federal Army during the Siege of Port Talbot, 1985

During the Union of England period, which had succeeded an era of eroding democratic liberties, Wales had the majority of its industrial assets confiscated by the Mosley regime. While industrialization increased, this was largely done by wealthy English landowners and politicians rather than the local population. These comprised largely of state enterprises rather than public officials, even as the Mosley regime claimed it to be "eminent domain". Nonetheless, Wales was a major industrial powerhouse during the period, despite England's neutrality during the Fourth Great War. The Mosley regime deliberately flooded parts of Wales to prevent local populations from developing on their own. Following its refusal to obey by London's tariff policies, Cardiff's main port was closed down beginning in 1950, extending to 1976. Various paramilitaries, some of which funded by Ireland, launched multiple armed rebellions against England, to minimal effect. The most prevailing revolt came in 1980, when Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru, a Welsh nationalist organization, bombed a number of railroads across the border with England, paralyzing travel into the area proper.

Following the collapse of the Mosley regime, partisan tensions within Wales exploded. A number of groups launched individual rebellions with the goal of establishing their own governments in the post-fascist state. The destruction of the M4 motorway cut off the remainder of highways leading into Wales from England, and the new republican government there declined to press further claims over the territory. The Welsh Civil War, which lasted from 1983 to 1986, left the country devastated. A bombing campaign by Ireland and Scotland successfully wiped out the MAC, but left the country's cities in ruin. As a result, a government under Alun Michael was elected by state parliaments, which lasts to the present. Wales joined the European Community in 1995, and the League to Enforce Peace in 2006. However, it maintains a strongly anti-GTO position, and has been among several nations to vote against LTEP resolutions proposed by the United States and Russia.

Government and politics[]

The Republic of Wales operates under a parliamentary republic system with a constitution that establishes a clear separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The government is based in Cardiff, the capital and largest city of Wales. The political framework is largely inspired by European parliamentary traditions, with a unicameral legislature, a ceremonial head of state, and a prime minister as the head of government. Since achieving full independence from England, Wales has developed a distinct political identity, promoting regional autonomy, cultural preservation, and economic self-sufficiency.

Head of state[]

The President of Wales serves as the ceremonial head of state, elected by the National Assembly (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) for a fixed term of six years. The president's role represents Welsh unity and continuity, with limited executive powers. Duties include signing legislation into law, representing Wales in diplomatic matters, and presiding over official state functions. Although the president holds no political affiliation during their term, they are often seen as a national figurehead who embodies the country's values. There are no term limits, and the only person to hold the position as of current is Alun Michael.

Executive branch[]

The Prime Minister of Wales (Prif Weinidog Cymru) is the head of government and is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the state. The prime minister is appointed by the president, typically from the leader of the majority party in the National Assembly. The prime minister leads the Cabinet, composed of ministers from various departments, and directs both domestic and foreign policy. Key ministries include: the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade – which manages international relations, trade negotiations, and diplomatic efforts, the Ministry of Defense and National Security – responsible for national defense, cybersecurity, and internal security, the Ministry of the Economy oversees economic planning, taxation, and industrial policy, the Ministry of Health and Social Services – directs public health services, healthcare infrastructure, and social welfare programs and the Ministry of Culture, Language, and Education – protects Welsh cultural heritage, oversees the promotion of the Welsh language, and administers the education system.

Legislative Branch[]

The National Assembly of Wales is the unicameral legislative body of the republic. Composed of 80 members, the National Assembly is elected every five years using a mixed-member proportional representation system, ensuring both constituency-based and proportional representation. The assembly holds the power to pass laws, approve the budget, and oversee the executive branch. It also has the authority to amend the constitution, subject to a two-thirds majority vote. The Presiding Officer (Llywydd) is elected by the assembly and manages legislative proceedings, ensuring neutrality and the smooth operation of debates and voting. Committees play a vital role in scrutinizing legislation and holding the government accountable.

Judiciary, parties and elections[]

The Supreme Court of Wales is the highest court in the republic, interpreting the constitution and adjudicating disputes of constitutional or legal importance. The judiciary is independent of both the executive and legislative branches. Below the Supreme Court, there are appellate and district courts that handle criminal, civil, and administrative matters. Judges are appointed by the president based on recommendations from the Judicial Appointments Commission, and they serve lifetime appointments to guarantee judicial independence. Wales has a multi-party political system, with political parties playing a central role in governance. Major political parties include: Plaid Cymru – advocates for Welsh independence, social democracy, and cultural preservation. Welsh Labour – a center-left party supporting social justice, public services, and a welfare state. Welsh Conservatives – center-right, focused on economic liberalism, fiscal conservatism, and traditional values. Welsh Green Party – promotes environmental sustainability, ecological economics, and social equality. Elections are held every five years, with all citizens over the age of 16 eligible to vote. The National Assembly elections use proportional representation, encouraging coalition governments and political diversity.

Education[]

Wales has developed a unique education system. Prior to the 18th century, formal education was exclusive to the elite. The earliest grammar schools appeared in Welsh towns like Ruthin, Brecon, and Cowbridge. Griffith Jones was one of the pioneers, establishing circulating schools in the 1730s, which reportedly taught half of the country's population to read. The 19th century saw Wales compelled to adopt an English-centric education system despite being predominantly Nonconformist and Welsh-speaking, due to economic growth in the south. The 'Welsh Not' was used in some schools to enforce English speaking, a practice that was widely resented. The 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales, known as the 'Treachery of the Blue Books' (Welsh: Brad y Llyfrau Gleision), led to an emphasis on English-language schooling.

The University College of Wales was founded in Aberystwyth in 1872, with Cardiff and Bangor following suit. These institutions united in 1893 to create the University of Wales. The Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889 established 95 secondary schools. In 1907, the Welsh Department for the Board of Education was formed, marking the first significant educational devolution in Wales. The late 20th century saw a revival of Welsh-language schools at the nursery and primary levels, changing attitudes towards Welsh-medium education. Welsh is now a mandatory subject in all state schools in Wales for students aged 5–16 years. However, there has never been a college exclusively teaching in Welsh.

Culture[]

The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre-Christian Britons were orally transmitted by the cynfeirdd (the early poets). Some of their works have survived in later medieval Welsh manuscripts: the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book of Aneirin (both from the 13th century); the Book of Taliesin and the White Book of Rhydderch (both from the 14th century); and the Red Book of Hergest (circa 1400). The prose stories from the White and Red Books are collectively known as the Mabinogion. Poems such as Cad Goddeu (The Battle of the Trees) and mnemonic list-texts like the Welsh Triads and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain also contain mythological elements. These texts encompass the earliest versions of the Arthurian legend and the traditional history of post-Roman Britain. Other Welsh folklore sources include the 9th-century Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum (the History of the Britons) and Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae (the History of the Kings of Britain), as well as later folklore exemplified by The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas.

Wales boasts one of the oldest continuous literary traditions in Europe, dating back to the sixth century and featuring Geoffrey of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales, considered among the finest Latin authors of the Middle Ages. The earliest Welsh verse, attributed to poets Taliesin and Aneirin, survives not in its original form but in significantly altered medieval versions. Welsh poetry, along with native lore and learning, endured through the era of the Poets of the Princes (circa 1100–1280) and the Poets of the Gentry (circa 1350–1650). The former were professional poets who crafted eulogies and elegies for their patrons, while the latter preferred the cywydd metre. This period gave rise to one of Wales's greatest poets, Dafydd ap Gwilym. However, the tradition waned following the Anglicisation of the gentry.

Although the professional poet became extinct, the assimilation of the native elite into a broader cultural sphere yielded additional literary advantages. Renaissance scholars like William Salesbury and John Davies introduced humanist principles from English universities. In 1588, William Morgan was the first to translate the Bible into Welsh. The 16th century saw the rise of 'free-metre' verse as a significant evolution in Welsh poetry, and by the mid-17th century, various accentual metres imported from England gained popularity. The 19th century witnessed an intense drive among Welsh-language authors to create a Welsh epic, spurred by the eisteddfod, leading to a prolific but inconsistent quality of work. Religious denominations, once sidelined, eventually took over the competitions, steering bardic themes towards scriptural and instructive subjects.