Xian Dynasty (Differently)

Empire of China
中華帝國
中华帝国
	Empire of China ; 中華帝國; 中华帝国
Flag	Coat of arms
	Anthem; 五族共和歌; "Song of Five Races Under One Union"
	The empire at its greatest extent
Capital	Beijing
Languages	Standard Chinese
Religion	Secular State
Government	Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy; (1912-1926) Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy under a military one-party dictatorship; (1926-1945)
	Emperor
Prime Minister
Legislature	National Assembly (1912-1926); Imperial Senate (1926-1945)
History
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Qing Dynasty
Chinese Regency
Manchuria
Uyghuristan
Tibet
Hainan

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The Xian Dynasty (憲朝/宪朝: Xiàncháo), officially the Empire of China (中華帝國/中华帝国: Zhōnghuá Dìguó), was a state and dynasty in China that existed from 1912 to 1945. It was declared by general Yuan Shikai after the failure of the Mongolian Revolution, and was his attempt to modernize China. The attempt was initially successful, but after the death of Shikai, the Empire began breaking apart, leading to the abdication of Yuan Keding.

Names[]

The official name of the Xian Dynasty was the Empire of China. In Chinese, this would be written as 中華帝國. After simplification of Chinese characters, the spelling was changed to 中华帝国. The name Xian Dynasty (憲朝/宪朝: Xiàncháo) comes from the second character of Yuan Shikai's regnal name: 憲/宪 (Xiàn), literally "law", but here understood to mean "Constitution."

History[]

Background[]

Main article: Beiyang Coup (Differently)

After the Mongolian Revolution of 1911, many people had lost much of their faith in the government. The Promised reforms to the cabinet had yet to materialize, and Korea was still independent, causing further distrust. The imperial Cabinet became viewed as a useless stopgap to preserve the Qing's legitimacy. Prime Minister Zaifeng, the Prince Chun and father of Emperor Xuantong, held the most blame in the eyes of the people, viewed as unworthy of his position in the government. Desire for reform became stronger than ever, and many people wanted the Cabinet to be replaced with a more democratic institution as soon as possible.

Enter Yuan Shikai. Yuan Shikai was a Chinese General who had served as Imperial Resident of Seoul, Governor of Shandong, and Viceroy of Zhili. He had served in the Sino-Japanese War, and had control of the Baiyang Army, the most powerful modernized army in the empire. Many people looked up to him, viewing him as the face of China's modernization efforts. He also had a lot of influence in the government of Zhili. To many, he was the perfect choice to lead the nation, though many preferred an outright rejection of the monarchy in favor of a Republican system.

On the 10th of October, 1911, members of the Beiyang Army, lead by Shikai, and aided by anti-Qing groups, seized several key buildings in Beijing, including the forbidden city. Prince Chun's Cabinet was dissolved and a new Cabinet was installed, with Shikai as Prime Minister. The Emperor and his regent, Empress Dowager Longyu, were unharmed, and casualties were minimal.

On December 1st of that year, Prime Minister Yuan Shikai and Empress Dowager Longyu issued a joint statement that a new constitution was being drafted, with elections being planned for some time next year. It was also announced that the the future role of the Imperial family would soon be determined, an cryptic allusion to debates about the future of the monarchy. The governor of Xinjiang was also replaced. Finally, it was announced that Tibet would become a province, but the Ganden Phodrang would remain.

In January 1912, rumors began spreading that Yuan Shikai would retire from his post of Prime Minister, and that the Xuantong Emperor would be abdicating, rumors that would prove to be semi-correct.

The New Dynasty[]

On the 12th of February, 1912, Yuan Shikai gave a speech. In it, he declared that the Qing had lost the Mandate of Heaven (Chinese: 天命; pinyin: Tiānmìng), a Chinese political philosophy that was used in ancient and imperial China to justify the rule of the King or Emperor of China. He emphasized the Qing's failed attempts on modernizing and the loss of Imperial territory to concessions and the Mongolian Revolution, while ignoring any successes the Qing had in the last few years. Empress Dowager Longyu, on behalf of the Xuantong Emperor, issued the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor (Chinese: 宣統帝退位詔書; pinyin: Xuāntǒng dì tuìwèi zhàoshū), announcing the abdication of the Emperor and the official end of the Qing Dynasty. Then, Yuan declared the beginning of a new Empire of China, with himself as the "Great Emperor of the Chinese Empire" (simplified Chinese: 中华帝国大皇帝; traditional Chinese: 中華帝國大皇帝; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Dìguó Dà Huángdì), taking the era name Hongxian (simplified Chinese: 洪宪; traditional Chinese: 洪憲; pinyin: Hóngxiàn, "Constitutional Abundance"). His position of acting Prime Minister would be taken by Xu Shichang (who was reportedly not that excited about Hongxian's decision). The Constitution of China, a.k.a. Yuan Shikai's constitution, was put into place.

Hongxian's ascension rites were delayed until March of that year. He had Manchurian clothes removed from the ceremony and had Han Chinese clothes revived but had put some changes to it. He wore new Han clothes to attend a dress rehearsal. A dress rehearsal was sabotaged by his Korean concubine. The Ceremony was filmed, and shown to theaters across the country. He also gave himself the military rank of "Grand Marshal of the Army and Navy" (陸海軍大元帥 Lù Hǎijūn Dà Yuán Shuài) to cement his status as Commander-in-chief of the Military. Soon after, the Hongxian Emperor started handing out titles of peerage to his closest relatives and friends, as well as those whom he thought he could buy with titles. There were mixed feelings among the people of China, but optimism for the future of generally high.

Flag of China (1912–1928) — Sun Yat-sen's proposed flag

Elections for the National Assembly took place on April 8th. The largest parties after the elections were the Chinese Nationalist Party (中國國民黨; Zhōngguó Guómíndǎng) formed from Sun Yat-sen's Anti-Qing group, and the Northern Ocean Party (北洋黨; Běi Yángdǎng), formed from Beiyang Army officers and politicians aligned with Hongxian. The two would reluctantly form a coalition government, with Xu Shichang being appointed Prime Minister, much to Sun Yat-sen's dismay. The two party's would exchange the position of Prime Minister. A new flag was proposed by Sun Yat-sen, which was further modified by the Emperor to become the official flag of China. The Nationalist Party would spearhead a new policy of Five Races Under One Union (五族共和; Wǔzú Gōnghé), the promotion of a harmonious existence under one nation of what were considered the five major ethnic groups in China: the Han, the Manchus, the Mongols, the Hui, and the Tibetans. The Northern Ocean Party would oversee a modernization of the Military, effectively finishing what the Qing started.

Reign of Hongxian[]

China underwent extensive reforms to modernize the country. The military would be improved and modernized, with the Beiyang Army being used as the model. The new constitution offered freedom of religion, though the traditional religion remained the majority in the government at least. Women suffrage was also adopted, enabling women to vote. Though the Senate remained unpopular, widely seen as an institutional for Absolutism and Military Authoritarianism, the House of Representatives still meant that democracy was preserved, at least for the time being.

The arts and entertainment flourished during this time period. The domestic film industry started to take off, as film studios opened in Shanghai. Traditional Chinese opera experienced something of a renaissance, as Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays. Yue opera began to gain popularity around this time.

The Great War[]

Main article: Great War (Differently)

With the outbreak of the Dreat War, the imperial government realized they had an opportunity on their hands. On the 24th of August, a day after Japan entered, the Empire of China Declared war on the Central Powers, hoping to reclaim lost land from both countries. They began seizing concessions and made plans to assault German possessions. China never sent troops overseas, however, 140,000 Chinese labourers (as a part of the British Army, the Chinese Labour Corps) served for both British and French forces before the end of the war. The Empires of China and Japan often fought over who would get what at the end of the war, but in the end, China managed to win out after finishing the Siege of Qingdao.

During the war, in 1917, General Zhang Xun, aided by members of the Manchu Party, marched on Beijing, intending to restore the Qing dynasty. After a small skirmish near the forbidden city, the plot was foiled, with the Qing loyalists surrendering in order to avoid harsher punishments. Xun was reprimanded by the Hongxian Emperor, and had to cut his queue to show he wouldn't try something like that again. The next day, it was announced that Zaifeng, former Prime Minister and father of Puyi, would be appointed governor of Fengtian, widely seen as a way to get him and the former emperor out of the city.

After the end of the war, China would regain lost possessions owned by the Central Powers, though Entente concessions were retained by their former owners. The Imperial Government viewed this as a victory against foreign occupiers. This would win the government much love from the public.

Anglo-American War[]

Main article: Anglo-American War (Differently)

In 1923, mere years after the end of the Great War, the Anglo-America War would break out. China would hope to benefit from this war to regain more concessions. With the stalemate of the war in 1925, the Chinese and Korean governments would make the decision to invade Japan, proving`they superiority of the Chinese Military over the Japanese. Starting with an invasion of Dalian on August 1st, 1926 and an amphibious landing on Kyushu in August 6th, the Chinese would enter the war with the Koreans.

The Chinese Military would be involved with many battles in the final stages of the war, most notably, the capture of Honolulu that would bring about the end of the war. Propaganda portrayed these battles as a final victory of the Chinese nation over the foreign power, who had nearly torn the country apart. With the end of the War, China would join the Pacific Ocean Nations Treaty Organisation and regain all concessions owned by Japan and the United Kingdom (including Dailan, but not Hong Kong), seemingly cementing their status as the most powerful nation in East Asia. The Nation celebrated this victory.

However, during the final stages of the war, Hongxian's health started to deteriorate. On May 20th, 1926, three days after the end of the Anglo-American War, Hongxian, the man who had ended the Qing and restored many of China's lost territories, had been pronounced dead. He was given a large funeral and his body was interred in a mausoleum in his home province of Henan. The Hongxian Era was officially over, and a new era was about to begin.

Yuntai Authoritarianism[]

After the death of Hongxian, his son, Yuan Keding (袁克定; Yuán Kèdìng) would ascend to the Dragon Throne, under the era name Yuntai (云台, Yúntāi), his courtesy name. One of his first acts as Emperor was to propose the Manchurian Relocation Act (滿洲族搬遷法令; Mǎnzhōuzú Bānqiān Fǎlìng), an act which would send all of the Manchu people in China to the Three Northeastern provinces, thereby making way for the sinicization of the empire. Several people in the National Assembly, mainly those aligned with the Kuomintang, would object to this act, viewing it as a betrayal of the Five Races One Union. Radical members of the Beiyangdang would, in response, create a hoax about a possible coup from the Nationalists. This gave them and the emperor reason to dissolve parliament and arrest members of the Party, ending the fragile coalition.

Yuntai would permanently abolish the National Assembly on July 20th, 1926. He replaced it with an empowered senate; through which he would rule. The One Party government would pass the Relocation Act and end the doctrine of Five Races One Union. Minorities would be persecuted, and any sense of democracy would be removed from the government. The heirs of Hongxian and the Beiyang Army had centralized power for themselves and defeated their rivals the Nationalists.

Around this time, debates about simplifying Chinese Characters started to gain attention.

Decline[]

With the official end of democracy, the Empire began to fall apart. Tibet, fearing their autonomy, would declare independence after the passing of the Manchu Relocation Act. Members of the Kashgar Party, including Turkic Nationalist Timur Beg, would stage the Uyghur Revolution of 1928 to break the chains of the Yuntai government and secure independence for East Turkestan. The 1930 Manchurian Coup would lead to the creation of Manchuria, while Hainan would break away in 1940. China intended to crush these rebellions, only for the United States and Soviet Union to recognize the independence of these nations. Not wanting to upset their largest ally, and fearing the might of the Russian Army, the Chinese decided to do nothing and wait for the situation to improve.

Meanwhile, the economy started to stagnate, while the size of the army decreased, as many defected to armies in the break away states or militias run by the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. With the navy having been diminished by the Treaty of Thebes, the Chinese military was weakened, though the newly independent Air Force helped stave off this decline. By 1940, the Military was down to a third of its size during the Anglo-American War.

The rise of Communism would lead many members of society, angry at the Beiyang government, to join the Chinese Communist Party. With it's members growing over the years, the CPC soon became powerful enough to challenge the Imperial Government. On August 5th, 1945, the Chinese Communist Party would stage an uprising in Beijing, forcing the Emperor to flee to Kaifeng and beginning the Chinese Civil War.

Rogue members of the Beiyangdang would invite Nationalist Chiang Kai-shek to stage a coup against the Imperial Government. The Kuomintang Coup of August 31st would remove the Beiyangdang from power and bring the Kuomintang back in. After taking power, Chiang Kai-shek would force the Yuntai Emperor to abdicate on September 3rd, bring an end to Xian Dynasty. A Chinese Regency would be established to decide the next monarch.

Government and Politics[]

The Government of the Xian Dynasty was a constitutional monarchy similar to Meiji/Taisho era Japan. Before the government could officially organize itself, the country was lead by Emperor Hongxian's cabinet (洪憲內閣; Hóngxiàn Nèigé), a continuation of the previous cabinet formed by Yuan Shikai. Many of the cabinet members, including prime minister Xu Shichang, would serve in the first officially elected parliament in China.

The Constitution of China endowed the Emperor of China with several powers. He was Commander-in-chief of the Chinese Military, could appoint senators and prime ministers, and could hand out titles of peerage. He was clearly in charge of the government, but initially his powers were limited and he had to work with the National Assembly. However, Yuntai's ascension saw the emperor's powers greatly increased.

The National Assembly (Chinese: 國會; pinyin: Guóhuì) was the legislative branch of the Xian Dynasty. It was modeled on Japan's Imperial Diet (And, by extension, the German Reichstag), meaning it was bicameral. The lower house of the National Assembly was the House of Representatives (眾議院; Zhòngyìyuàn), an elected assembly with 596 members. Elections to the House were handled under a first-past-the-post plurality system, with voters voting for one party; all chinese citizens over the age of 25 were eligible to vote. The upper house of the National Assembly was the Senate (參議院, Cānyìyuàn), an hereditary/appointment assembly with 274 members. 150 senators were hereditary peers (dukes, marquesses, counts, viscounts and barons) over the age of 25 serving life terms, while 124 were appointed senators (typically military officers and politicians) serving six years terms. Together, the Assembly had 870; 466 seats were needed for a government to form. The House of Representatives was given extra powers to curb the influence of the senate.

After Yuntai dissolved the National Assembly, the Senate was reorganized into the Imperial Senate (帝國參議院/帝国参议院: Dìguó Cānyìyuàn). The institution was given greater powers, and the membership was expanded to included more nobles, appointees, and even imperial princes. It's formation is generally seen as being the end of Democracy in the Dynasty; using this institution, the Beiyang Party were able to remove the opposition from government

There were many political parties in the Xian Dynasty. Here's a list of important and prominent parties:

Chinese Nationalist Party (中國國民黨/中国国民党; Zhōngguó Guómíndǎng): A big tent party dedicated to the ideology of its founder, Sun Yat-sen. Formed from a variety of anti-Qin revolutionary organizations. Currently exists as a center right party in modern China.
Young Kashgar Party (青年喀什黨; Qīngnián Kāshídǎng, Яшлиқ Қәшқәр партийә, Yashlig Qeshqer Partiye): A Turkic nationalist party based in Xinjiang. Many of its founders had previously attended the meeting that lead to the Beiyang Coup. Would later organize the revolution, before splitting up into several parties.
Northern Ocean Party (北洋黨/北洋党; Běi Yángdǎng): A far right party focusing on the military and monarchy. Formed from Beiyang army officers and politicians aligned with Yuan Shikai. Dissolved after the end of the Chinese Civil War.
Communist Party of China (中國共產黨/中国共产党; Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng): A far left party established in 1921. Though initially minor, it would grow in strength, and would lead lead an uprising against the Imperial Government, starting the Chinese Civil War. Dissolved after the end of the war, with many former members relocating to Taiwan.
Manchu Party (滿洲黨/满洲党; Mǎnzhōudǎng): A Qing restoration party comprised of Manchu nobles and Qing Loyalists. Incredibly unpopular, they were only kept around because the government never feared them. After the Manchurian Relocation Movement, the Manchu Party would organize the Manchurian Coup.
Progressive Party (進步黨/进步党; Jìnbùdǎng): A right-wing party, formed from moderate members of the Beiyangdang, including Xu Shichang. Served as the main opposition party for the rest of Hongxian's reign.